Wear: materials, mechanisms and practice (N.-Y., 2005). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаWear: materials, mechanisms and practice / ed. by Stachowiak G.W. - N.-Y.: Wiley, 2005. - 458 p. - (Tribology in practice series). - ISBN 0470016280
 

Оглавление / Contents
 
List of Contributors ......................................... xiii
Series Editors' Foreword ..................................... xvii
Preface ....................................................... xix

1.  The Challenge of Wear ....................................... 1
       I.M. Hutchings
    
    Abstract .................................................... 1
    1.1.  Introduction .......................................... 1
    1.2.  Definitions and Development of Wear Studies ........... 1
    1.3.  Scope and Challenges .................................. 2
    1.4.  Conclusions ........................................... 6
    References .................................................. 6

2.  Classification of Wear Mechanisms/Models .................... 9
       K. Kato
    
    Abstract .................................................... 9
    2.1.  Introduction .......................................... 9
    2.2.  Classification of Wear Mechanisms and Wear Modes ..... 10
          2.2.1.  Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal Wear ........ 10
          2.2.2.  Wear Modes: Abrasive, Adhesive, Flow and 
                  Fatigue Wear ................................. 11
          2.2.3.  Corrosive Wear ............................... 14
          2.2.4.  Melt and Diffusive Wear ...................... 15
    2.3.  General Discussion of Wear Mechanisms and Their 
          Models ............................................... 15
          2.3.1.  Material Dependence .......................... 15
          2.3.2.  Wear Maps .................................... 16
          2.3.3.  Wear Mode Transition ......................... 17
          2.3.4.  Erosion ...................................... 17
    2.4.  Conclusion ........................................... 18
    Acknowledgements ........................................... 18
    References ................................................. 18

3.  Wear of Metals: A Material Approach ........................ 21
       S.K. Biswas
    
    Abstract ................................................... 21
    3.1.  Introduction ......................................... 21
    3.2.  Mild Wear and Transition to Severe Wear .............. 22
          3.2.1.  Mild Wear .................................... 22
          3.2.2.  Transition to Severe Wear .................... 23
    3.3.  Strain Rate Estimates and Bulk Surface Temperature ... 27
          3.3.1.  Strain Rate Response Maps .................... 28
          3.3.2.  Bulk Surface Temperature ..................... 30
          3.3.3.  The Phenomenological Argument ................ 30
          3.3.4.  Micrographic Observations .................... 31
    3.4.  Summary .............................................. 34
          3.4.1.  Homogeneous Deformation - Severe Wear ........ 34
          3.4.2.  Homogeneous Deformation - Mild Wear .......... 35
          3.4.3.  Inhomogeneous Deformation - Severe Wear ...... 35
    Acknowledgements ........................................... 35
    References ................................................. 35

4.  Boundary Lubricated Wear ................................... 37
       S.M. Hsu, R.G. Munro, M.C. Shen, and R.S. Gates
    
    Abstract ................................................... 37
    4.1.  Introduction ......................................... 37
    4.2.  Lubricated Wear Classification ....................... 38
    4.3.  Lubricated Wear Versus "Dry" Wear .................... 38
    4.4.  Wear Measurement in Well-Lubricated Systems .......... 42
    4.5.  Measurement Procedures ............................... 44
          4.5.1.  Run-in Process ............................... 46
          4.5.2.  General Performance Wear Test (GPT) .......... 49
          4.5.3.  Enhanced Oxidation Wear Test (EOT) ........... 52
          4.5.4.  Boundary Film Persistence Test (BFPT) ........ 53
          4.5.5.  Case Study with GPT and BFPT ................. 55
          4.5.6.  Boundary Film Failure Test (BFFT) ............ 57
    4.6.  Wear Mechanisms Under Lubricated Conditions .......... 61
    4.7.  Modeling of Lubricated Wear .......................... 65
          4.7.1.  Wear ......................................... 65
          4.7.2.  Contact Area ................................. 65
          4.7.3.  Rheology ..................................... 66
          4.7.4.  Film Thickness ............................... 67
          4.7.5.  Contact Stress ............................... 67
          4.7.6.  Flash Temperatures ........................... 67
    4.8.  Summary .............................................. 68
    Acknowledgments ............................................ 69
    References ................................................. 69

5.  Wear and Chemistry of Lubricants ........................... 71
       A. Neville and A. Morina
    
    5.1.  Encountering Wear in Tribological Contacts ........... 71
    5.2.  Lubricant Formulations - Drivers for Change .......... 73
    5.3.  Tribochemistry and Wear .............................. 76
    5.4.  Antiwear Additive Technologies ....................... 77
          5.4.1.  Antiwear Technologies ........................ 77
          5.4.2.  ZDDP - Antiwear Mechanism .................... 78
          5.4.3.  Interaction of ZDDP with Other Additives ..... 83
          5.4.4.  New Antiwear Additive Technologies ........... 87
    5.5.  Extreme Pressure Additives ........................... 88
    5.6.  Lubricating Non-Fe Materials ......................... 89
    References ................................................. 90

6.  Surface Chemistry in Tribology ............................. 95
       A.J. Gellman and N.D. Spencer
    
    Abstract ................................................... 95
    6.1.  Introduction ......................................... 95
    6.2.  Boundary Lubrication and Oiliness Additives .......... 95
          6.2.1.  Introduction ................................. 95
          6.2.2.  Monolayers, Multilayers and Soaps ............ 96
          6.2.3.  Viscous Near-Surface Layers ................. 102
          6.2.4.  Boundary Lubrication in Natural Joints ...... 102
          6.2.5.  Summary ..................................... 103
    6.3.  Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate ......................... 103
          6.3.1.  Background .................................. 103
          6.3.2.  Analytical Approaches ....................... 104
          6.3.3.  Summary of Film-Formation Mechanism ......... 104
          6.3.4.  Studies of Film Structure, Composition, 
                  and Thickness ............................... 105
    6.4.  Hard Disk Lubrication ............................... 109
    6.5.  Vapor-Phase Lubrication ............................. 112
    6.6.  Tribology of Quasicrystals .......................... 115
    6.7.  Conclusions ......................................... 118
    Acknowledgments ........................................... 118
    References ................................................ 118

7.  Tribology of Engineered Surfaces .......................... 123
       K. Holmberg and A. Matthews
    
    Abstract .................................................. 123
    7.1.  Introduction ........................................ 123
    7.2.  Definition of an Engineered Surface ................. 125
    7.3.  Tribomechanisms of Coated Surfaces .................. 125
          7.3.1.  Scales of Tribology ......................... 125
          7.3.2.  Macromechanical Friction and Wear ........... 126
          7.3.3.  Micromechanical Mechanisms .................. 131
          7.3.4.  Modelling Stresses and Strains in a Coated
                  Microcontact ................................ 132
          7.3.5.  Tribochemical Mechanisms .................... 133
          7.3.6.  Nanoscale Mechanisms ........................ 135
          7.3.7.  Debris Generation and Transfer Layers ....... 136
    7.4.  Contact Types ....................................... 139
          7.4.1.  Sliding ..................................... 139
          7.4.2.  Abrasion .................................... 141
          7.4.3.  Impact ...................................... 141
          7.4.4.  Surface Fatigue ............................. 141
          7.4.5.  Fretting .................................... 142
          7.4.6.  Chemical Dissolution ........................ 143
          7.4.7.  Lubricated .................................. 143
    7.5.  Advanced Coating Types .............................. 144
          7.5.1.  Hard Binary Compound Coatings ............... 145
          7.5.2.  Multilayer Coatings ......................... 146
          7.5.3.  Nanocomposite Coatings ...................... 149
          7.5.4.  Hybrid and Duplex Coatings .................. 151
    7.6.  Applications ........................................ 152
    7.7.  Conclusions ......................................... 154
    References ................................................ 155

8.  Wear of Ceramics: Wear Transitions and Tribochemical
    Reactions ................................................. 167
       S. Jahanmir
    
    Abstract .................................................. 167
    8.1.  Introduction ........................................ 168
    8.2.  Structure and Properties of Ceramics ................ 168
          8.2.1.  Alumina Ceramics ............................ 168
          8.2.2.  Silicon Nitride Ceramics .................... 169
          8.2.3.  Silicon Carbide Ceramics .................... 170
    8.3.  Wear Transitions .................................... 170
          8.3.1.  Alumina ..................................... 171
          8.3.2.  Silicon Nitride ............................. 174
          8.3.3.  Silicon Carbide ............................. 175
    8.4.  Damage Formation in Hertzian Contacts ............... 177
          8.4.1.  Brittle Behavior ............................ 177
          8.4.2.  Quasi-Plastic Behavior ...................... 177
          8.4.3.  Brittleness Index ........................... 180
    8.5.  Transition Loads in Sliding Contacts ................ 181
          8.5.1.  Quasi-Plastic Behavior ...................... 181
          8.5.2.  Brittle Behavior ............................ 183
          8.5.3.  Transition from Brittle Fracture to Quasi-
                  Plasticity .................................. 184
    8.6.  Ceramics in Tribological Applications ............... 185
    Acknowledgments ........................................... 187
    References ................................................ 187

9.  Tribology of Diamond and Diamond-Like Carbon Films: An
    Overview .................................................. 191
       A. Erdemir and Ch. Donnet
    
    Abstract .................................................. 191
    9.1.  General Overview .................................... 192
    9.2.  Diamond Films ....................................... 194
          9.2.1.  Deposition and Film Microstructure .......... 194
          9.2.2.  Tribology of Diamond Films .................. 195
          9.2.3.  Practical Applications ...................... 204
    9.3.  Diamond-like Carbon Films ........................... 207
          9.3.1.  Structure and Composition ................... 207
          9.3.2.  Tribology of DLC Films ...................... 209
          9.3.3.  Synthesis of Carbon Films with 
                  Superlow-Friction and -Wear Properties ...... 215
          9.3.4.  Practical Applications ...................... 217
    9.4.  Summary and Future Direction ........................ 219
    Acknowledgments ........................................... 219
    References ................................................ 220

10. Tribology of Polymeric Solids and Their Composites ........ 223
      B.J. Briscoe and S.K. Sinha

    Abstract .................................................. 223
    10.1. Introduction ........................................ 224
    10.2. The Mechanisms of Polymer Friction .................. 225
          10.2.1. The Ploughing Term - Brief Summary .......... 225
          10.2.2. The Adhesion Term - Brief Summary ........... 227
    10.3. Wear ................................................ 228
          10.3.1. Semantics and Rationalizations .............. 228
          10.3.2. Wear Classification Based on Generic 
                  Scaling Responses ........................... 230
          10.3.3. Phenomenological Classification of Wear 
                  Damages ..................................... 232
          10.3.4. Wear Classification Based on Polymeric
                  Responses ................................... 240
    10.4. Tribology of Polymer Composites ..................... 249
          10.4.1. 'Soft and Lubricating' Phases in a Harder
                  Matrix ...................................... 249
          10.4.2. 'Hard and Strong' Phases in a 'Soft'
                  Matrix ...................................... 250
          10.4.3. Hybrid Polymer Composites ................... 253
    10.5. Environmental and Lubrication Effects ............... 254
    10.6. A Case Study: Polymers in Hip and Knee Prosthetic 
          Applications -Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight 
          Poly(ethylene) (UHMWPE) ............................. 256
    10.7. Concluding Remarks .................................. 260
    Acknowledgements .......................................... 261
    References ................................................ 261

11. Wear of Polymer Composites ................................ 269
       K. Friedrich, Z. Zhang and P. Klein

    Abstract .................................................. 269
    11.1. Introduction ........................................ 269
    11.2. Sliding Wear of Filler Reinforced Polymer 
          Composites .......................................... 270
          11.2.1. Short Fibres and Internal Lubricants ........ 270
          11.2.2. PTFE Matrix Composites ...................... 272
          11.2.3. Micro- and Nanoparticle Reinforcements ...... 275
          11.2.4. Integration of Traditional Fillers with 
                  Inorganic Nanoparticles ..................... 277
          11.2.5. Functionally Graded Tribo-Materials ......... 279
    11.3. Artificial Neural Networks Approach for Wear
          Prediction .......................................... 280
    11.4. Fibre Orientation, Wear Mechanisms and Stress
          Conditions in Continuous Fibre Reinforced 
          Composites .......................................... 282
    11.5. Conclusions ......................................... 286
    Acknowledgements .......................................... 286
    References ................................................ 287

12. Third-Body Reality - Consequences and Use of the Third-
    Body Concept to Solve Friction and Wear Problems .......... 291
       Y.  Berthier

    Abstract .................................................. 291
    12.1. Introduction ........................................ 292
    12.2. Relationship Between the Third Body and Friction .... 292
          12.2.1. Boundary Conditions ......................... 292
          12.2.2. Friction Analysis ........................... 292
    12.3. Relationship Between the Third Body and Wear ........ 293
          12.3.1. Wear Laws ................................... 293
          12.3.2. Material Hardness and Wear .................. 294
    12.4. What Methods Exist for Studying Friction and
          Wear? ............................................... 294
          12.4.1. The Scientific Context Surrounding 
                  Tribology ................................... 294
          12.4.2. Physical Difficulties Related to Studying
                  Contacts .................................... 295
          12.4.3. So Where to from Here? ...................... 297
    12.5. The Third-Body Concept .............................. 298
          12.5.1. Artificial and Natural Third Bodies ......... 298
          12.5.2. Contact Without the Third Body .............. 299
          12.5.3. Types of "Solid" Third Body from the 
                  Mechanical Viewpoint ........................ 299
          12.5.4. "Action Heights" of Third Bodies ............ 300
    12.6. Functions and Behaviour of the Third Body ........... 300
          12.6.1. Functions of the Third Body ................. 300
          12.6.2. Operation of Solid Third Bodies ............. 301
          12.6.3. Tribological Circuit of Third-Body Flows .... 302
          12.6.4. Rheology of the Third Body .................. 303
          12.6.5. Scientific and Technological Consequences
                  of the Tribological Circuit ................. 303
    12.7. Roles of the Materials in a Tribological Contact .... 304
          12.7.1. Indirect Role of the Materials - Scale of
                  the Actual Mechanism or Mechanical Device ... 304
          12.7.2. Direct Role of the Materials - Scale
                  of First Bodies ............................. 304
          12.7.3. Optimal Direct Response of Material to
                  the Tribological Contact .................... 305
          12.7.4. Consequences on the Approach Used for
                  Solving Technological Problems .............. 306
    12.8. Taking into Account the Effects of the Mechanism .... 306
          12.8.1. Choosing the Conditions to be Modelled ...... 306
          12.8.2. Technological Consequences of the Effects
                  of the Mechanism ............................ 307
    12.9. Taking into Account the Effect of the First
          Bodies .............................................. 307
          12.9.1. Local Contact Dynamics ...................... 307
          12.9.2. Technological Consequences of the Effects
                  of the First Bodies ......................... 307
    12.10."Solid" Natural Third-Body Modelling ................ 308
          12.10.1.Reconstruction of the Tribological 
                  Circuit ..................................... 308
          12.10.2.Technological Consequences of the Third
                  Body ........................................ 309
    12.11.Correspondence of the Strategy Proposed to 
          Reality ............................................. 310
    12.12.Control of Input Conditions ......................... 310
          12.12.1.Objectives .................................. 310
          12.12.2.Procedure ................................... 311
          12.12.3.Precautions ................................. 311
    12.13.Performing Experiments .............................. 312
          12.13.1.Initial Conditions .......................... 312
          12.13.2.Exterior of the Contact ..................... 313
          12.13.3.Interior of the Contact ..................... 313
    12.14.Conclusions ......................................... 314
    Acknowledgements .......................................... 314
    References ................................................ 315

13. Basic Principles of Fretting .............................. 317
       P. Kapsa, S. Fouvry and L. Vincent

    Abstract .................................................. 317
    13.1. Introduction ........................................ 317
    13.2. Wear ................................................ 319
    13.3. Industrial Needs .................................... 320
    13.4. Fretting in Assemblies .............................. 321
    13.5. Fretting Processes .................................. 322
    13.6. Fretting Parameters ................................. 330
          13.6.1. Nature of Loading ........................... 330
          13.6.2. Nature of the First Bodies .................. 331
          13.6.3. Coatings .................................... 332
          13.6.4. Environment ................................. 334
          13.6.5. Frequency ................................... 335
          13.6.6. Temperature ................................. 335
    13.7. Conclusions ......................................... 336
    References ................................................ 337

14. Characterization and Classification of Abrasive
    Particles and Surfaces .................................... 339
       G.W. Stachowiak, G.B. Stachowiak, D. De Pellegrin
       and P. Podsiadlo

    Abstract .................................................. 339
    14.1. Introduction ........................................ 340
    14.2. General Descriptors of Particle Shape ............... 340
    14.3. Particle Angularity Parameters ...................... 341
          14.3.1. Angularity Parameters SP and SPQ and Their
                  Relation to Abrasive and Erosive Wear ....... 342
          14.3.2. Cone-Fit Analysis (CFA) ..................... 344
          14.3.3. Sharpness Analysis .......................... 349
    14.4. Particle Size Effect in Abrasive Wear ............... 353
    14.5. Sharpness of Surfaces ............................... 356
          14.5.1. Characterization of Surface Sharpness by
                  the Modified SPQ Method ..................... 356
          14.5.2. Characterization of Surface Sharpness by
                  SA .......................................... 358
    14.6. Classification of Abrasive Surfaces ................. 359
    14.7. Summary ............................................. 364
    Acknowledgements .......................................... 365
    References ................................................ 365

15. Wear Mapping of Materials ................................. 369
       S.M. Hsu and M.C. Shen

    15.1. Introduction ........................................ 369
          15.1.1. Wear - A System Perspective ................. 370
          15.1.2. Historical Material Selection Guide ......... 370
    15.2. Basic Definition of Wear ............................ 372
          15.2.1. Nature of Wear .............................. 372
          15.2.2. Wear Characterization ....................... 372
    15.3. Wear as a System Function ........................... 375
    15.4. Wear Maps as a Classification Tool to Define 
          the System .......................................... 376
    15.5. Wear as an "Intrinsic" Material Property as
          Defined by Wear Maps ................................ 377
    15.6. Different Kinds of Wear Maps ........................ 378
    15.7. Application of Wear Maps ............................ 380
          15.7.1. Material Comparison Based on Wear Maps ...... 381
          15.7.2. Wear Transition Diagrams .................... 385
          15.7.3. Material Selection Guided by Wear Maps ...... 389
          15.7.4. Wear Mechanism Identification ............... 391
          15.7.5. Wear Modeling Guide Based on Wear Maps ...... 396
          15.7.6. Wear Prediction Based on Wear Maps .......... 405
    15.8. Construction Techniques of Wear Maps ................ 411
          15.8.1. Conducting Wear Experiments ................. 411
          15.8.2. Wear Data ................................... 412
          15.8.3. Data Trend Analysis ......................... 413
          15.8.4. Wear Mapping ................................ 414
          15.8.5. Selection of Parameters for Mapping ......... 416
          15.8.6. Assumptions in the Step-Loading Test 
                  Procedure ................................... 418
    15.9. Application Map Concept and Examples ................ 420
    15.10.Future Wear Map Research ............................ 421
    References ................................................ 422

16. Machine Failure and Its Avoidance - Tribology's
    Contribution to Effective Maintenance of Critical
    Machinery ................................................. 425
       B.J. Roylance

    Abstract .................................................. 425
    16.1. Introduction ........................................ 425
    16.2. Maintenance Practice and Tribological Principles .... 426
          16.2.1. Maintenance Practice - A Brief Historical
                  Overview .................................... 426
          16.2.2. Tribological Principles ..................... 427
          16.2.3. Tribology and Maintenance ................... 431
    16.3. Failure Diagnoses ................................... 432
          16.3.1. Failure Morphology and Analysis ............. 432
          16.3.2. Dealing with Failure - Two Short Case
                  Studies ..................................... 434
          16.3.3. Comment ..................................... 436
    16.4. Condition-Based Maintenance ......................... 436
    16.5. Wear and Wear Debris Analysis ....................... 440
          16.5.1. Wear Modes and Associated Debris 
                  Characteristics - Some Experimental
                  Results and Their Application to RAF
                  Early Failure Detection Centres ............. 443
          16.5.2. Summary of Laboratory Test Results .......... 445
          16.5.3. Wear Particle Classification and
                  Application ................................. 446
    16.6. Predicting the Remaining Useful Life and
          Evaluating the Cost Benefits ........................ 448
          16.6.1. Remaining Useful Life Predictions ........... 448
          16.6.2. Evaluating the Cost Benefits ................ 449
    16.7. Closure ............................................. 450
    Acknowledgements .......................................... 450
    References ................................................ 451

Index ......................................................... 453


 
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