Series Editors' Foreword ..................................... xvii
Preface ....................................................... xix
Section A - PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS, AND TRENDS
Chapter 1. Total Tribology - the Practice of Considering
Tribology at all Stages of the Life Cycle of
Interface Components ............................... 1
1.1. Introduction - historical perspective ..................... 1
1.2. Pollution and global warming .............................. 2
1.3. Promoting good practice in tribology ...................... 3
1.3.1. Further scope for the effective application of
tribology ......................................... 3
1.3.2. The Tribology Group Committee of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers ........................... 4
1.4. Total tribology - the practice of considering tribology
at all stages of the life cycle of interface components ... 4
1.4.1. Function first .................................... 4
1.4.2. A life-cycle assessment approach to total
tribology ......................................... 4
1.5. Conclusion - now and the future ........................... 6
Chapter 2. The Possible Impact of Tribology on Future
Machine Design ...................................... 9
2.1. The basic elements of machine design ...................... 9
2.2. Design improvements ..................................... 10
2.2.1. Materials ........................................ 10
2.2.2. Contact conditions ............................... 13
2.3. New design opportunities ................................. 16
2.4. Conclusions .............................................. 18
Chapter 3. Foresight - the Experience of the Materials Panel
and the Potential for Total Tribology
3.1. The history of Foresight in the UK ....................... 20
3.2. Engaging the community ................................... 21
3.3. Lessons from the first round ............................. 22
3.4. The second round of Foresight 1999-2004 .................. 23
3.5. Where does total tribology fit in with the
Foresight process? ....................................... 25
3.6. Conclusions .............................................. 26
Acknowledgements ............................................... 26
References ..................................................... 26
Chapter 4. Materials in Tribology - Opportunities and
Challenges ......................................... 27
4.1. Introduction ............................................. 27
4.2. Material properties and wear resistance .................. 30
4.3. Developments in bulk materials and surface coatings ...... 31
4.3.1. Metals, ceramics, and polymers ................... 31
4.3.2. Surface engineering .............................. 33
4.4. Tribological materials and design ........................ 35
4.5. Conclusions .............................................. 36
References ..................................................... 37
Chapter 5. Hard Tribological Coatings: Developments and
Applications ....................................... 39
5.1. Introduction ............................................. 39
5.2. The requirements of tribological contacts ................ 40
5.2.1. Contact types .................................... 40
5.2.2. Is hardness important? ........................... 42
5.3. Coating developments ..................................... 44
5.3.1. Enhanced binary compound coatings ................ 44
5.3.2. Multi-layer coatings ............................. 45
5.3.3. Nanocomposite coatings ........................... 49
5.3.4. Hybrid and duplex coatings ....................... 52
5.4. Applications ............................................. 53
5.5. Conclusions .............................................. 58
Acknowledgements ............................................... 59
References ..................................................... 59
Chapter 6. Trends in Lubrication .............................. 65
6.1. The lubricants industry .................................. 65
6.2. Automotive ............................................... 66
6.2.1. Crankcase lubricants ............................. 66
6.2.2. Transmission lubricants .......................... 77
6.2.3. Waste oil processing ............................. 77
6.3. Industrial ............................................... 78
6.3.1. General .......................................... 78
6.3.2. Gear oils ........................................ 78
6.3.3. Hydraulic fluids ................................. 78
6.3.4. Compressor oils .................................. 79
6.3.5. Metalworking fluids (MWFs) ....................... 79
6.4. Summary .................................................. 80
References ..................................................... 81
Chapter 7. Trends in Fluid Lubrication ........................ 83
7.1. Introduction ............................................. 83
7.2. Trends in automotive fluid lubrication ................... 84
7.2.1. Passenger cars ................................... 84
7.2.2. Heavy duty tracks ................................ 91
7.3. Trends in industrial fluid lubrication ................... 95
7.3.1. General industrial lubricants .................... 95
7.3.2. Grease ........................................... 96
7.4. Relation to total tribology .............................. 96
7.5. Conclusions .............................................. 97
Acknowledgements ............................................... 97
References ..................................................... 98
Chapter 8. Use of Solid Lubricants ............................ 99
8.1. Introduction ............................................. 99
8.2. Overview ................................................. 99
8.3. Bonded coatings ......................................... 100
8.4. Self-lubricating compounds .............................. 102
8.4.1. Self lubricating compound - deep groove ball
bearings ........................................ 102
8.4.2. Self lubricating compound - plain bearings ...... 104
8.5. Summary ................................................. 107
Bibliography .................................................. 107
Chapter 9. Tribology - A Key Element in Condition
Monitoring ........................................ 109
9.1. Introduction ............................................ 109
9.2. Condition monitoring .................................... 110
9.3. Performance monitoring .................................. 111
9.4. Vibration monitoring .................................... 111
9.5. Lubricant and wear debris analysis ...................... 112
9.5.1. Simple site tests ............................... 112
9.5.2. Physical tests - viscosity ...................... 112
9.5.3. Acid and base numbers ........................... 113
9.5.4. Elemental measurement ........................... 113
9.5.5. Wear debris analysis ............................ 114
9.5.6. Oil properties and chemical measurement ......... 114
9.6. Examples where lubricant and wear debris analysis
identified a problem .................................... 114
9.6.1. Example 1 - abrasive wear ....................... 114
9.6.2. Example 2 - adhesive wear ....................... 115
9.6.3. Example 3 - abrasive wear ....................... 116
9.6.4. Example 4 - corrosive wear ...................... 116
9.6.5. Example 5 - fatigue wear ........................ 117
9.7. Conclusion .............................................. 118
References .................................................... 118
Section В - PRACTICE
Section Bl - MANUFACTURING
Chapter 10. The Role of Tribology in Manufacturing
Processes ......................................... 119
10.1. Introduction ............................................ 119
10.2. Inverse methods ........................................ 121
10.3. Microscopic models of asperity contact ................. 123
10.4. Conclusions ............................................ 127
References .................................................... 127
Chapter 11. Product Design for Process Capability ............. 129
11.1. Introduction ............................................ 129
11.2. Process capability indices .............................. 132
11.2.1. Process capability index, Cp .................... 132
11.2.2. Process capability index, Cpk ................... 133
11.3. A methodology for capable design ........................ 134
11.3.1. Identifying the variable drivers ................ 134
11.3.2. Overview of the approach ........................ 135
11.3.3. Example - component-manufacturing, variable
risks analysis .................................. 138
11.4. Capable design in surface engineering ................... 139
11.4.1. Background ...................................... 139
11.4.2. Overview of the approach for surface
engineering ..................................... 141
11.5. Concluding remarks ...................................... 143
Acknowledgements .............................................. 143
References .................................................... 144
Chapter 12. Porous Ceramic Water Hydrostatic Bearings ......... 147
12.1. Introduction ............................................ 147
12.2. Bearing design and optimization ......................... 149
12.3. Bearing manufacture and characterization ................ 152
12.4. Conclusions ............................................. 159
Acknowledgement ............................................... 160
References .................................................... 160
Chapter 13. Design of Abrasive Machining Processes ............ 163
13.1. Introduction ............................................ 164
13.2. Abrasive machining processes ............................ 165
13.2.1. Grinding ........................................ 165
13.2.2. Honing .......................................... 165
13.2.3. Lapping ......................................... 167
13.2.4. Polishing ....................................... 167
13.3. Abrasives ............................................... 167
13.4. Tribological principles ................................. 168
13.4.1. Two-body abrasion ............................... 169
13.4.2. Three-body abrasion ............................. 169
13.4.3. A typical grinding process ...................... 170
13.5. Systematic analysis ..................................... 172
13.5.1. Importance of chip volume ....................... 173
13.5.2. Importance of process energy .................... 173
13.6. Energy analysis ......................................... 174
13.7. Temperature case studies for grinding processes ......... 180
13.8. Conclusions ............................................. 182
References .................................................... 182
Appendix A The circular contact heat source equation .......... 183
Chapter 14. Metal-working Fluids and Some of Their
Environmental Impacts ............................. 185
14.1. Metal-working fluid classifications ..................... 185
14.2. Metal-working fluid raw materials ....................... 187
14.3. Metal-working fluid life cycle .......................... 188
14.3.1. Tankering away .................................. 188
14.3.2. In-plant waste treatment ........................ 189
14.3.3. Waste minimization by elimination of the
source of the problem ........................... 191
14.4. Conclusion .............................................. 194
References .................................................... 195
Chapter 15. Ecological and Cost-efficient Solutions for
Metal Cutting Fluids and Machine Tool
Lubrication ....................................... 197
15.1. Coolant costs ........................................... 197
15.1.1. Coolant application costs ....................... 197
15.1.2. Coolant application costs with constant
system .......................................... 198
15.2. New fluid families-oil instead of emulsion .............. 203
15.2.1. Fluid families for machine tools ................ 204
15.2.2. Rapidly biogradable fluid family based on
synthetic esters in the DaimlerChrysler plant
in Mannheim - application report ................ 206
15.2.3. Low evaporating fluid family in the
DaimlerChrysler plant in Bad Cannstatt
/Germany - application report ................... 207
15.2.4. Fluid family for the gear box plant of Getrag
in Bari/Italy - application report .............. 211
15.3. Unifluid ................................................ 212
15.4. Minimum quantity lubrication - dry cutting .............. 213
15.4.1. Minimum quantity lubrication systems ............ 215
15.4.2. Coolants for minimum quantity lubrication ....... 216
15.5. Summary ................................................. 218
References .................................................... 218
Section B2 - TRANSPORT POWERPLANT
Chapter 16. On the Lubrication of Power Plants ................ 221
16.1. 'The art is in the assemblage' .......................... 221
16.2. Lubricant additive solutions to common problems ......... 222
16.2.1. Antioxidants .................................... 222
16.2.2. Detergents ...................................... 224
16.2.3. Dispersants ..................................... 226
16.2.4. Anti-wear agents ................................ 226
16.2.5. Viscosity index improvers ....................... 226
16.2.6. Friction modifiers .............................. 227
16.3. Lubrication of small two-stroke engines ................. 228
16.4. Four-stroke motorcycle engine lubrication ............... 229
16.5. Marine diesel engine lubrication ........................ 229
16.5.1. Two-stroke slow-speed crosshead ................. 229
16.5.2. Four-stroke medium-speed trunk piston engines ... 230
16.6. Passenger car spark and compression ignition engines .... 230
16.7. The impact of engine design changes ..................... 231
16.8. Consequences of engine design changes for the
lubricant ............................................... 231
16.8.1. Exhaust gas recirculation ....................... 232
16.8.2. Reductions in P and S levels in oils ............ 232
16.8.3. Reduction in oil viscosity ...................... 233
16.9. Conclusions ............................................. 234
References .................................................... 234
Chapter 17. Tribology in Aerospace ............................ 235
17.1. Importance of tribology in aerospace .................... 235
17.2. Key areas for wear control in gas turbine engines ....... 237
17.2.1. Blade root/dovetail fretting .................... 238
17.2.2. Fan erosion ..................................... 238
17.2.3. Blade snubbers .................................. 238
17.2.4. Blade tips/casings - abrasion, cutting .......... 238
17.2.5. Shafts/bearings - rolling contact ............... 238
17.2.6. Spine drives .................................... 239
17.2.7. Blade shroud interlocks ......................... 239
17.2.8. Blade/disc firtrees - fretting/cutting wear ..... 239
17.2.9. Locating features - fretting/adhesive wear ...... 239
17.3. Existing engine surface treatments and coatings
technology .............................................. 239
17.3.1. Case hardening .................................. 241
17.3.2. Surface finish .................................. 241
17.3.3. Paint systems ................................... 242
17.3.4. Electro-chemical ................................ 242
17.3.5. Flame-sprayed abradable liners .................. 242
17.3.6. Advanced flame-sprayed coatings ................. 243
17.4. How surface engineering can be used to improve engine
efficiency .............................................. 243
17.4.1. Fan blade root coatings ......................... 244
17.4.2. The use of liners to minimize overtip leakage
off air through aero-engines .................... 245
17.5. Conclusion .............................................. 246
Chapter 18. A Tribological Tour of the Internal Combustion
Engine ............................................ 249
18.1. Introduction ............................................ 249
18.2. Lubrication ............................................. 250
18.2.1. Hydrodynamic lubrication ........................ 250
18.2.2. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication .................. 251
18.2.3. Thin-film lubrication ........................... 251
18.2.4. Boundary lubrication ............................ 251
18.3. Tribology of the 1С engine .............................. 251
18.3.1. Plain bearings .................................. 252
18.3.2. Piston and cylinder bore ........................ 258
18.3.3. Valve train ..................................... 259
18.4. Conclusions ............................................. 262
References .................................................... 262
Chapter 19. Friction Prediction and Cold Starting of Diesel
Engines ........................................... 265
19.1. Introduction ............................................ 265
19.2. Main modules of EnFAS ................................... 266
19.3. Friction, prediction, and comparison with measurement ... 267
19.3.1. Steady-state bearing friction ................... 267
19.3.2. Predicted bearing friction results and
analysis ........................................ 267
19.3.3. Transient engine friction prediction ............ 269
19.4. Prediction of cold starting capability of diesel
engines ................................................. 271
19.4.1. Cold starting of diesel engines ................. 271
19.4.2. Prediction of cold starting capability .......... 272
19.5. Tribology in automotive industry ........................ 273
19.5.1. Surface modification - laser honing ............. 273
19.5.2. Hard coating .................................... 273
19.5.3. Transient friction/cold start models ............ 274
19.5.4. Predictive wear models .......................... 274
19.5.5. Real world fuel economy predictive tools ........ 274
19.6. Conclusions ............................................. 274
Acknowledgements .............................................. 275
References .................................................... 275
Index ......................................................... 277
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