Section I
Light ........................................................... 1
Chapter 1
The Nature of Light ............................................. 3
1.1 Introduction ................................................ 3
1.2 The Evolution of Light Theory ............................... 3
1.3 Measurements of the Speed of Light .......................... 7
1.3.1 Galileo's Attempts .................................... 7
1.3.2 Roemer's Method ....................................... 7
1.3.3 Fizeau's Method ....................................... 9
1.3.4 Michelson's Measurements ............................. 10
1.3.5 Maxwell's Electromagnetic Waves Method ............... 11
1.4 Light Sources .............................................. 11
1.5 The Blectromagnetic Spectrum ............................... 12
1.6 Types of Electromagnetic Waves ............................. 14
1.6.1 Radiofrequency Waves ................................. 14
1.6.2 Microwaves ........................................... 14
1.6.3 Infrared Waves ....................................... 16
1.6.4 Visible Light ........................................ 16
1.6.5 Ultraviolet Light .................................... 17
1.6.6 X-Rays ............................................... 18
1.6.7 Gamma Rays ........................................... 19
1.7 Properties of Light ........................................ 19
1.7.1 Absorption ........................................... 19
1.7.2 Transmission ......................................... 20
1.7.3 Reflection ........................................... 20
1.7.4 Refraction ........................................... 20
1.7.5 Interference ......................................... 21
1.7.6 Diffraction .......................................... 21
1.7.7 Polarization ......................................... 21
Further Reading ................................................ 21
Chapter 2
Light and Shadows .............................................. 23
2.1 Introduction ............................................... 23
2.2 Shadows .................................................... 23
2.3 Solar Eclipse .............................................. 25
2.4 Lunar Eclipse .............................................. 26
2.5 Applications of Shadows .................................... 27
2.6 Experimental Work .......................................... 27
2.6.1 Technique and Apparatus .............................. 29
2.6.2 Procedure ............................................ 29
2.6.3 Safety Procedures .................................... 29
2.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up ..................................... 29
2.6.5 Data Collection ...................................... 30
2.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ............................ 31
2.6.7 Results and Discussions .............................. 31
2.6.8 Conclusion ........................................... 32
2.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ...................... 32
2.7 List of References ......................................... 32
2.8 Appendices ................................................. 32
Further Reading ................................................ 32
Chapter 3
Thermal Radiation .............................................. 33
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 33
3.2 Thermal Radiation ......................................... 33
3.3 Light and Energy .......................................... 37
3.4 Solar Radiation Energy .................................... 37
3.5 Classification of Solar Collectors ........................ 41
3.6 Flat-Plate Collectors ..................................... 42
3.7 Solar Heating Systems ..................................... 43
3.7.1 Solar Air Heating Systems ........................... 43
3.7.2 Solar Water Heating Systems ......................... 45
3.8 Hot Water and Steam Generation Systems .................... 46
3.9 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration/Air Conditioning
Systems ................................................... 48
3.10 Photovoltaic Systems ...................................... 49
3.11 Experimental Work ......................................... 50
3.11.1 Solar Radiation Measurements ...................... 50
3.11.2 Technique and Apparatus ........................... 50
3.11.3 Procedure ......................................... 50
3.11.4 Safety Procedure .................................. 51
3.11.5 Apparatus Set-Up .................................. 51
3.11.6 Data Collection ................................... 51
3.11.7 Calculations and Analysis ......................... 52
3.11.8 Results and Discussions ........................... 53
3.11.9 Conclusion ........................................ 53
3.11.10 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 53
3.12 List of References ........................................ 53
3.13 Appendices ................................................ 53
3.14 Weather Station ........................................... 53
Further Reading ................................................ 53
Chapter 4
Light Production ............................................... 55
4.1 Introduction ............................................... 55
4.2 Spontaneous Light Emission ................................. 56
4.3 Stimulated Light Emission .................................. 56
4.4 Light Production by Different Energy Sources ............... 56
4.4.1 Heat Energy .......................................... 56
4.4.2 Electrical Discharge ................................. 56
4.4.3 Electrical Current ................................... 56
4.4.4 Absorption of Light .................................. 57
4.4.5 Chemical Reaction .................................... 58
4.4.6 Biological Reactions ................................. 58
4.4.7 Nuclear Radiation .................................... 58
4.4.8 Electrical Current ................................... 59
4.4.8.1 Incandescent Light Lamps .................... 59
4.4.8.2 Tungsten Halogen Lamps ...................... 61
4.4.8.3 Fluorescent Light Lamps ..................... 61
4.4.8.4 Black Lights ................................ 62
4.4.8.5 Phosphorescent Materials .................... 62
4.4.8.6 High-Pressure Mercury Discharge Lamps ....... 63
4.4.8.7 Metal Halide Discharge Lamps ................ 64
4.4.8.8 Sodium Lamps ................................ 64
4.4.8.9 Energy Efficient Light Bulbs ................ 64
4.4.8.10 Lasers ...................................... 67
4.5 Experimental Work .......................................... 68
4.5.1 Technique and Apparatus .............................. 69
4.5.2 Procedure ............................................ 70
4.5.3 Safety Procedure ..................................... 70
4.5.4 Apparatus Set-Up ..................................... 70
4.5.4.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light
Sources ..................................... 70
4.5.4.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser
Diode ....................................... 71
4.5.5 Data Collection ...................................... 71
4.5.5.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light
Sources ..................................... 71
4.5.5.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser
Diode ....................................... 71
4.5.6 Calculations and Analysis ............................ 72
4.5.6.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light
Sources ..................................... 72
4.5.6.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser
Diode ....................................... 72
4.5.7 Results and Discussions .............................. 72
4.5.7.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light
Sources ..................................... 72
4.5.7.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser
Diode ....................................... 72
4.5.8 Conclusion ........................................... 72
4.5.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ...................... 73
4.6 List of References ......................................... 73
4.7 Appendices ................................................. 73
Further Reading ................................................ 73
Chapter 5
Light Intensity ................................................ 75
5.1 Introduction ............................................... 75
5.2 Light Intensity ............................................ 75
5.3 Luminous Flux .............................................. 76
5.4 Luminous Intensity ......................................... 76
5.5 Illumination ............................................... 78
5.6 Experimental Work .......................................... 79
5.6.1 Technique and Apparatus .............................. 81
5.6.2 Procedure ............................................ 81
5.6.3 Safety Procedure ..................................... 82
5.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up ..................................... 82
5.6.4.1 Light Intensity From Five Different Light
Sources ...................................... 82
5.6.4.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat
Surface ...................................... 82
5.6.5 Data Collection ...................................... 83
5.6.5.1 Light Intensity from Hive Different Light
Sources ...................................... 83
5.6.5.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat
Surface ...................................... 83
5.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ............................ 84
5.6.6.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light
Sources ...................................... 84
5.6.6.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat
Surface ...................................... 84
5.6.7 Results and Discussions .............................. 84
5.6.7.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light
Sources ...................................... 84
5.6.7.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat
Surface ...................................... 84
5.6.8 Conclusion ........................................... 84
5.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ...................... 84
5.7 List of References ......................................... 84
5.8 Appendices ................................................. 84
Further Reading ................................................ 84
Chapter 6
Light and Colour ............................................... 87
6.1 Introduction .............................................. 87
6.2 Colours ................................................... 87
6.3 Mixing Light Colours ...................................... 90
6.3.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing .................... 90
6.3.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ................. 91
6.4 The Colour Triangle ....................................... 94
6.5 The C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram ........................... 95
6.6 Colour Televisions ........................................ 95
6.7 Spectral Transmittance Curves ............................. 96
6.8 Colour Temperature ........................................ 96
6.9 Newton's Colour Wheel ..................................... 99
6.10 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel ........... 99
6.11 Black and White Colour Snip Wheel ........................ 100
6.12 Experimental Work ........................................ 100
6.12.1 Technique and Apparatus ........................... 101
6.12.2 Procedure ......................................... 103
6.12.3 Safety Procedure .................................. 103
6.12.4 Apparatus Set-Up .................................. 103
6.12.4.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing ......... 103
6.12.4.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ...... 104
6.12.4.3 Newton's Colour Wheel .................... 104
6.12.4.4 Black and White Colour Strip
Intersection Wheel ....................... 105
6.12.4.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ....... 106
6.12.5 Data Collection ................................... 106
6.12.5.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing ......... 106
6.12.4.1 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ...... 107
6.12.5.1 Newton's Colour Wheel .................... 107
6.12.5.2 Black and White Colour Strip
Intersection Wheel ....................... 108
6.12.5.3 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ....... 108
6.12.6 Calculations and Analysis ......................... 109
6.12.7 Results and Discussions ........................... 109
6.12.7.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing ......... 109
6.12.7.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ...... 109
6.12.7.3 Newton's Colour Wheel .................... 109
6.12.7.4 Black and White Colour Strip
Intersection Wheel ....................... 109
6.12.7.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ....... 109
6.12.8 Conclusion ........................................ 109
6.12.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 109
6.13 List of References ....................................... 109
6.14 Appendices ............................................... 109
Further Reading ............................................... 109
Chapter 7
Laws of Light ................................................. 111
7.1 Introduction .............................................. 111
7.2 Law of Reflection ......................................... 111
7.2.1 Fresnel Reflection .................................. 113
7.2.2 Back Reflection ..................................... 114
7.3 Law of Refraction ......................................... 115
7.3.1 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection ........ 119
7.4 Experimental Work ......................................... 120
7.4.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ............ 121
7.4.1.1 Law of Refraction at Air-Water Interface ... 121
7.4.1.2 Critical Angle at Water-Air Interface ...... 122
7.4.1.3 Total Internal Reflection at Water-Air
Interface .................................. 122
7.4.2 Technique and Apparatus ............................ 123
7.4.3 Procedure .......................................... 124
7.4.4 Safety Procedure ................................... 124
7.4.5 Apparatus Set-Up ................................... 125
7.4.5.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ... 125
7.4.5.2 Law of Refraction at Air-Water Interface ... 125
7.4.5.3 Critical Angle at Water-Air Interface ...... 126
7.4.5.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water-Air
Interface .................................. 127
7.4.6 Data Collection .................................... 128
7.4.6.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ... 128
7.4.6.2 Law of Refraction at Air-Water Interface ... 128
7.4.6.3 Critical Angle at Water-Air Interface ...... 129
7.4.6.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water-Air
Interface .................................. 129
7.4.7 Calculations and Analysis .......................... 129
7.4.7.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ... 129
7.4.7.2 Law of Refraction at Air-Water Interface ... 130
7.4.7.3 Critical Angle at Water-Air Interface ...... 130
7.4.7.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water-Air
Interface .................................. 130
7.4.8 Results and Discussions ............................ 130
7.4.8.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ... 130
7.4.8.2 Law of Refraction at Air-Water Interface ... 130
7.4.8.3 Critical Angle at Water-Air Interface ...... 130
7.4.8.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water-Air
Interface .................................. 130
7.4.9 Conclusion ......................................... 131
7.4.10 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .................... 131
7.4.11 List of References ................................. 131
7.4.12 Appendices ......................................... 131
Further Reading ............................................... 131
Section II
Optics ........................................................ 133
Chapter 8
Plane Mirrors ................................................. 135
8.1 Introduction .............................................. 135
8.2 The Reflection of Light ................................... 135
8.2.1 An Object Placed in Front of a Plane Mirror ......... 137
8.2.2 Multiple Images Formed by an Object Placed between
Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles ................... 138
8.2.3 Tracing a Laser beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Acute Angle ........................... 138
8.2.4 Tracing a Laser beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at Right Angles ............................. 139
8.2.5 Tracing a Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle .......................... 139
8.2.6 Tracing a Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane
Mirrors at Different Angles ......................... 140
8.2.7 Tracing a Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating
Mirror .............................................. 141
8.3 Experimental Work ......................................... 141
8.3.1 Technique and Apparatus ............................. 142
8.3.2 Procedure ........................................... 143
8.3.3 Safety Procedure .................................... 143
8.3.4 Apparatus Setup ..................................... 143
8.3.4.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane
Mirror ...................................... 143
8.3.4.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors
at Right Angles ............................. 144
8.3.4.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Acute Angle ................... 145
8.3.4.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at Right Angles ..................... 146
8.3.4.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle .................. 146
8.3.4.6 A Beam Source Passing between Three Plane
Mirrors at Different Angles ................. 146
8.3.4.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating
Mirror ...................................... 146
8.3.5 Data Collection ..................................... 148
8.3.5.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane
Mirror ...................................... 148
8.3.5.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors
at Right Angles ............................. 148
8.3.5.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Acute Angle ................... 148
8.3.5.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at Right Angles ..................... 149
8.3.5.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle .................. 149
8.3.5.6 A Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane
Mirrors at Different Angles ................. 149
8.3.5.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating
Mirror ...................................... 150
8.3.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................... 150
8.3.6.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane
Mirror ...................................... 150
8.3.6.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors
at Right Angles ............................. 150
8.3.6.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Acute Angle ................... 150
8.3.6.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at Right Angles ..................... 150
8.3.6.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle .................. 150
8.3.6.6 A Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane
Mirrors at Different Angles ................. 150
8.3.6.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating
Mirror ...................................... 150
8.3.7 Results and Discussions ............................. 151
8.3.7.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane
Mirror ...................................... 151
8.3.7.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors
at Right Angles ............................. 151
8.3.7.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane
Mirrors at an Acute Angle ................... 151
8.3.8 Conclusion .......................................... 151
8.3.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..................... 151
8.4 List of References ........................................ 151
8.5 Appendices ................................................ 151
Further Reading ............................................... 151
Chapter 9
Spherical Mirrors ............................................. 153
9.1 Introduction .............................................. 153
9.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors ........................ 153
9.2.1 Concave Mirrors ..................................... 157
9.2.2 The Mirror Equation ................................. 159
9.2.3 Convex Mirrors ...................................... 161
9.2.4 Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors ............... 162
9.3 Spherical Aberration ...................................... 162
9.3.1 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave
Mirrors ............................................. 163
9.4 Experimental Work ......................................... 164
9.4.1 Technique and Apparatus ............................. 164
9.4.2 Procedure ........................................... 165
9.4.3 Safety Procedure .................................... 165
9.4.4 Apparatus Setup ..................................... 165
9.4.4.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors ...... 165
9.4.4.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ....... 166
9.4.4.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical
Concave Mirrors ............................. 167
9.4.5 Data Collection ..................................... 168
9.4.5.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors ...... 168
9.4.5.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ....... 168
9.4.5.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical
Concave Mirrors ............................. 168
9.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................... 169
9.4.6.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors ...... 169
9.4.6.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ....... 169
9.4.6.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical
Concave Mirrors ............................. 169
9.4.7 Results and Discussions ............................. 169
9.4.7.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors ...... 169
9.4.7.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ....... 169
9.4.7.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical
Concave Mirrors ............................. 169
9.4.8 Conclusion .......................................... 169
9.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..................... 170
9.5 List of References ........................................ 170
9.6 Appendix .................................................. 170
Further Reading ............................................... 170
Chapter 10
Lenses ........................................................ 173
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 173
10.2 Types of Lenses .......................................... 173
10.2.1 Converging and Diverging Lenses .................. 173
10.2.2 GRIN Lenses ...................................... 176
10.2.3 Ball Lenses ...................................... 179
10.2.4 Fresnel Lenses ................................... 181
10.2.5 Liquid Lenses .................................... 182
10.3 Graphical Method to Locate an Image Fonned by
Converging and Diverging Lenses ......................... 182
10.4 Image Formation by Converging Lenses .................... 183
10.5 The Lens Equation ....................................... 185
10.6 Magnification of a Thin Lens ............................ 186
10.7 The Lensmaker's Equation ................................ 187
10.8 Combination of Thin Lenses .............................. 188
10.9 Lens Aberrations ........................................ 189
10.9.1 Spherical Aberration ............................. 189
10.9.2 Chromatic Aberration ............................. 189
10.9.3 Astigmatism ...................................... 190
10.10 Lens Polishing Technology ............................... 191
10.11 Experimental Work ....................................... 194
10.11.1 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 194
10.11.2 Procedure ....................................... 195
10.11.3 Safely Procedure ................................ 195
10.11.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 195
10.11.4.1 Image Formed by a Lens ................ 195
10.11.4.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two
Lenses ................................ 196
10.11.5 Data Collection ................................. 197
10.11.5.1 Image Formed by a Lens ................ 197
10.11.5.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two
Lenses ................................ 197
10.11.6 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 198
10.11.6.1 Image Formed by a Lens ................ 198
10.11.6.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two
Lenses ................................ 198
10.11.7 Results and Discussions ......................... 198
10.11.7.1 Image Formed by a Lens ................ 198
10.11.7.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two
Lenses ................................ 199
10.11.8 Conclusion ...................................... 199
10.11.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 199
10.12 List of References ...................................... 199
10.13 Appendices .............................................. 199
Further Reading ............................................... 199
Chapter 11
Prisms ........................................................ 201
11.1 Introduction ............................................ 201
11.2 Prisms .................................................. 201
11.3 Prism Types ............................................. 202
11.3.1 Right Angle Prisms .............................. 202
11.3.2 Equilateral Prisms .............................. 203
11.3.3 Dove Prisms ..................................... 203
11.3.4 Roof Prisms ..................................... 204
11.3.5 Penta Prisms .................................... 204
11.3.6 Double Porro Prisms ............................. 205
11.3.7 Leman-Springcr Prisms ........................... 205
11.3.8 Wedge Prisms .................................... 206
11.3.9 Prisms with Special Applications ................ 207
11.3.10 Other Types of Prisms ........................... 208
11.4 Prisms in Different Combinations ........................ 209
11.5 Light Beam Passing through a Prism ...................... 209
11.6 Factors Governing Dispersion of Light by a Prism ........ 211
11.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism .................... 211
11.8 Mixing Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube ...... 212
11.9 Experimental Work ....................................... 213
11.9.1 Technique and Apparatus .......................... 213
11.9.2 Procedure ........................................ 215
11.9.3 Safety Procedure ................................. 215
11.9.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................. 215
11.9.5 Data Collection .................................. 221
11.9.5.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right
Angle Prism ............................. 221
11.9.5.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove
Prism ................................... 221
11.9.5.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro
Prism ................................... 221
11.9.5.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism ...... 221
11.9.5.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism
Combination ............................. 221
11.9.5.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to
Calculate the Index of Refraction ....... 221
11.9.5.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism .... 222
11.9.5.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using
a Glass Rod and Tube .................... 222
11.9.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................ 223
11.9.6.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right
Angle Prism ............................. 223
11.9.6.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove
Prism ................................... 223
11.9.6.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro
Prism ................................... 223
11.9.6.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism ...... 223
11.9.6.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism
Combination ............................. 223
11.9.6.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to
Calculate the Index of Refraction ....... 223
11.9.6.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism .... 223
11.9.6.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using
a Glass Rod and Tube .................... 223
11.9.7 Results and Discussions .......................... 223
11.9.7.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right
Angle Prism ............................. 223
11.9.7.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove
Prism ................................... 223
11.9.7.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro
Prism ................................... 224
11.9.7.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism ...... 224
11.9.7.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism
Combination ............................. 224
11.9.7.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to
Calculate the Index of Refraction ....... 224
11.9.7.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism .... 224
11.9.7.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using
a Glass Rod and Tube .................... 224
11.9.8 Conclusion ....................................... 224
11.9.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .................. 224
11.10 List of References ...................................... 225
11.11 Appendices .............................................. 225
Further Reading ............................................... 225
Chapter 12
Beamsplitters ................................................. 227
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 227
12.2 Beamsplitters ............................................ 227
12.3 Beamsplitter Types ....................................... 228
12.3.1 Standard Cube Beamsplitters ...................... 228
12.3.2 Polarizing Cube Beamsplitters .................... 228
12.3.3 Rectangular Polarizing Beamsplitters ............. 229
12.3.4 Lateral Displacement Polarizing Beamsplitters .... 230
12.3.5 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitters ........... 230
12.3.6 Polka-Dot Beamsplitters .......................... 231
12.3.7 Elliptical Plate Beamsplitters ................... 231
12.3.8 Mirror-Type Beamsplitters ........................ 232
12.3.9 Pellicle Beamsplitters ........................... 232
12.3.10 Visible and Near Infrared Region Plate
Beamsplitters .................................... 233
12.3.11 Quartz Beamsplitters ............................. 233
12.3.12 Dichroic Plate Beamsplliters ..................... 233
12.3.13 Other Types of Beamsplitters ..................... 233
12.4 Experimental Work ........................................ 234
12.4.1 Technique and Apparatus .......................... 234
12.4.2 Procedure ........................................ 235
12.4.3 Safety Procedure ................................. 235
12.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................. 236
12.4.4.1 Cube Beamsplitter ....................... 236
12.4.4.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ................ 237
12.4.4.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ... 237
12.4.5 Data Collection .................................. 239
12.4.5.1 Cube Beamsplitter ....................... 239
12.4.5.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ................ 239
12.4.5.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ... 239
12.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................ 239
12.4.6.1 Cube Beamsplitter ....................... 239
12.4.6.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ................ 240
12.4.6.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ... 240
12.4.7 Results and Discussions .......................... 240
12.4.7.1 Cube Beamsplitter ....................... 240
12.4.7.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ................ 240
12.4.7.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ... 240
12.4.8 Conclusion ........................................ 240
12.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 240
12.5 List of References ....................................... 240
12.6 Appendices ............................................... 240
Further Reading ............................................... 241
Chapter 13
Light Passing through Optical Components ...................... 243
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 243
13.2 Experimental Work ........................................ 243
13.2.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from
the Laser Optics Kit ............................. 244
13.2.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components
from the Ray Optics Laser Set .................... 244
13.2.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube ....... 245
13.2.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ............... 245
13.2.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable
Bundle ........................................... 245
13.2.6 Technique and Apparatus .......................... 245
13.2.7 Procedure ........................................ 247
13.2.8 Safety Procedure ................................. 247
13.2.9 Apparatus Set-Up ................................. 247
13.2.9.1 Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Laser Optics Kit .... 247
13.2.9.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Ray Optics Laser
Set ..................................... 249
13.2.9.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and
Tube .................................... 249
13.2.9.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ...... 251
13.2.9.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic
Cable Bundle ............................ 252
13.2.10 Data Collection .................................. 252
13.2.10.1 Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Laser Optics Kit ... 252
13.2.10.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Ray Optics Laser
Set .................................... 252
13.2.10.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and
Tube ................................... 253
13.2.10.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ..... 255
13.2.10.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic
Cable Bundle ........................... 255
13.2.11 Calculations and Analysis ........................ 256
13.2.11.1 Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Laser Optics Kit ... 256
13.2.11.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Ray Optics Laser
Set .................................... 256
13.2.11.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and
Tube ................................... 256
13.2.11.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ..... 256
13.2.11.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic
Cable Bundle ........................... 256
13.2.12 Results and Discussions .......................... 256
13.2.12.1 Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Laser Optics Kit ... 256
13.2.12.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical
Components from the Ray Optics Laser
Set .................................... 256
13.2.12.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and
Tube ................................... 257
13.2.12.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ..... 257
13.2.12.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic
Cable Bundle ........................... 257
13.2.13 Conclusion ....................................... 257
13.2.14 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .................. 257
13.3 List of References ....................................... 257
13.4 Appendix ................................................. 257
Further Reading ............................................... 257
Chapter 14
Optical Instruments for Viewing Applications .................. 259
14.1 Introduction ............................................ 259
14.2 Optical Instruments ..................................... 259
14.3 The Camera .............................................. 260
14.4 The Eye ................................................. 262
14.4.1 Detects of Vision ................................ 264
14.4.2 Colour Vision .................................... 265
14.5 The Magnifying Glass .................................... 265
14.6 The Compound Microscope ................................. 268
14.7 Advanced Microscopes .................................... 270
14.8 The Telescope ........................................... 271
14.8.1 The Refracting Telescope ......................... 272
14.8.2 Terrestrial Telescopes ........................... 273
14.8.3 The Rejlecting Telescope ......................... 275
14.8.4 Famous Telescopes ................................ 276
14.8.5 Research Telescopes .............................. 277
14.9 The Binoculars .......................................... 278
14.10 The Slide Projector ..................................... 279
14.11 The Overhead Projector .................................. 280
14.12 The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector .............. 281
14.13 The Light Box ........................................... 282
14.14 Experimental Work ....................................... 283
14.14.1 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 284
14.14.2 Procedure ....................................... 284
14.14.3 Safety Procedure ................................ 284
14.14.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 284
14.14.4.1 A Slide Projector: Operate, Observe
Image Formation, Disassemble to
Examine the Functionality of the
Optical Components, and Reassemble .... 284
14.14.5 Data Collection ................................. 285
14.14.6 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 285
14.14.7 Results and Discussions ......................... 285
14.14.7.1 A Slide Projector: Operate, Observe
Image Formation, Disassemble to
Examine the Functionality of the
Optical Components, and Reassemble .... 285
14.14.8 Conclusion ...................................... 285
14.14.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 285
14.15 List of References ...................................... 286
14.16 Appendices .............................................. 286
Further Reading ............................................... 286
Chapter 15
Polarization of Light ......................................... 287
15.1 Introduction ............................................ 287
15.2 Polarization of Light ................................... 287
15.3 Forms of Polarization of Light .......................... 288
15.4 Occurrence of Polarization .............................. 289
15.4.1 Polarization by Reflection ....................... 290
15.4.2 Polarization by Double Refraction ................ 291
15.4.3 Polarization by Scattering ....................... 293
15.4.4 Polarization by Selective Absorption ............. 295
15.5 Polarizing Materials .................................... 296
15.6 Polarizing Optical Components ........................... 297
15.7 The Law of Malus ........................................ 297
15.8 Optical Activity ........................................ 299
15.9 Photoelasticity ......................................... 300
15.10 Liquid Crystal Display .................................. 301
15.11 Polarization Maintaining Fibres ......................... 304
15.12 Polarization Loss ....................................... 304
15.13 Experimental Work ....................................... 304
15.13.1 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 305
15.13.2 Procedure ....................................... 306
15.13.3 Safety Procedure ................................ 306
15.13.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 307
15.13.4.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing
Cube Beamsplitter ..................... 307
15.13.4.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing
Beamsplitter .......................... 308
15.13.4.3 Light Passing through a Calcite
Material .............................. 309
15.13.4.4 The Law of Malus ...................... 310
15.13.5 Data Collection ................................. 311
15.13.5.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing
Cube Beamsplitter ..................... 311
15.13.5.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing
Beamsplitter .......................... 311
15.13.5.3 Light Passing through a Calcite
Material .............................. 311
15.13.5.4 The Law of Malus ...................... 312
15.13.6 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 312
15.13.6.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing
Cube Beamsplitter ..................... 312
15.13.6.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing
Beamsplitter Cube ..................... 313
15.13.6.3 Light Passing through a Calcite
Material .............................. 313
15.13.6.4 The Law of Malus ...................... 313
15.13.7 Results and Discussions ......................... 313
15.13.7.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing
Cube Beamsplitter ..................... 313
15.13.7.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing
Beamsplitter .......................... 313
15.13.7.3 Light Passing through a Calcite
Material .............................. 313
15.13.7.4 The Law of Malus ...................... 313
15.13.8 Conclusion ...................................... 314
15.13.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 314
15.14 List of References ...................................... 314
15.15 Appendices .............................................. 314
Further Reading ............................................... 314
Chapter 16
Optical Materials ............................................. 317
16.1 Introduction ............................................. 317
16.2 Classes of Materials ..................................... 317
16.2.1 Glass ............................................. 317
16.2.2 Dopants ........................................... 319
16.2.3 Co-Dopants ........................................ 319
16.2.4 Polymers in Photonics ............................. 320
16.3 Applications ............................................. 320
16.3.1 Reflectors ........................................ 320
16.3.2 Lenses ............................................ 321
16.3.3 Fibre Optics ...................................... 322
16.3.4 Mechanical Components ............................. 323
16.4 Experimental Work ........................................ 323
16.4.1 Technique and Apparatus ........................... 323
16.4.2 Procedure ......................................... 324
16.4.3 Safety Procedure .................................. 324
16.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up .................................. 325
16.4.4.1 Set Up of Interferometer ................. 325
16.4.5 Data Collection ................................... 325
16.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ......................... 325
16.4.7 Results and Discussions ........................... 325
16.4.8 Conclusion ........................................ 326
16.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 326
16.5 List of References ....................................... 326
16.6 Appendix ................................................. 326
Further Reading ............................................... 326
Section III
Waves and Diffraction ......................................... 329
Chapter 17
Waves ......................................................... 331
17.1 Introduction ............................................ 331
17.2 The Nature of Waves ..................................... 331
17.2.1 Energy Transfer .................................. 331
17.2.2 Mechanical Waves ................................. 332
17.2.3 Elastic Potential Energy ......................... 332
17.2.4 Vibrating Spring ................................. 334
17.3 Types of Waves .......................................... 335
17.3.1 Transverse Waves ................................. 335
17.3.2 Longitudinal Waves ............................... 335
17.3.3 Water Waves ...................................... 336
17.3.4 Rayleigh Surface Waves ........................... 337
17.4 Characteristics of Waves ................................ 337
17.5 Trigonometric Notation of Waves ......................... 338
17.6 Simple Harmonic Motion .................................. 340
17.7 Period and Frequency of Simple Harmonic Motion .......... 342
17.8 The Simple Pendulum ..................................... 343
17.9 Experimental Work ....................................... 345
17.9.1 Hook's Law for Springs .......................... 345
17.9.2 Generating Different Types of Waves ............. 345
17.9.3 Period of a Simple Pendulum ..................... 345
17.9.4 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 345
17.9.5 Procedure ....................................... 348
17.9.6 Safety Procedure ................................ 348
17.9.7 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 348
17.9.7.1 Hook's Law ............................. 348
17.9.7.2 Generating Different Types of Waves .... 348
17.9.7.3 Period of a Simple Pendulum ............ 348
17.9.8 Data Collection ................................. 348
17.9.8.1 Hook's Law ............................. 348
17.9.8.2 Generating Different Types of Waves .... 349
17.9.8.3 Period of a Simple Pendulum ............ 349
17.9.9 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 349
17.9.9.1 Hook's Law ............................. 349
17.9.9.2 Generating Different Types of Waves .... 350
17.9.9.3 Period of a Simple Pendulum ............ 350
17.9.10 Results and Discussions ......................... 350
17.9.10.1 Hook's Law ............................ 350
17.9.10.2 Generating Different Types of Waves ... 350
17.9.10.3 Period of a Simple Pendulum ........... 350
17.9.11 Conclusion ...................................... 350
17.9.12 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 350
17.10 List of References ...................................... 350
17.11 Appendices .............................................. 350
Further Reading ............................................... 350
Chapter 18
Interference and Diffraction .................................. 353
18.1 Introduction ............................................ 353
18.2 Interference of Light ................................... 353
18.3 Young's Double-Slit Experiment .......................... 355
18.4 Wave Phase Changes Due to Rellection .................... 358
18.5 Interference in Thin Films .............................. 359
18.6 Newton's Rings .......................................... 361
18.7 Thin Film Applications .................................. 361
18.8 Diffraction ............................................. 362
18.9 Experimental Work ....................................... 364
18.9.1 Technique and Apparatus .......................... 364
18.9.2 Procedure ........................................ 366
18.9.3 Safety Procedure ................................. 366
18.9.4 Apparatus Setup .................................. 366
18.9.4.1 Diffraction Pattern of a Blade .......... 366
18.9.5 Data Collection .................................. 370
18.9.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................ 370
18.9.7 Results and Discussions .......................... 370
18.9.8 Conclusion ....................................... 370
18.9.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .................. 370
18.10 List of References ...................................... 370
18.11 Appendix ................................................ 371
Further Reading ............................................... 371
Chapter 19
The Diffraction Grating ....................................... 373
19.1 Introduction ............................................ 373
19.2 Diffraction Gratings .................................... 373
19.3 Profiles of Gratings .................................... 375
19.4 Planar Diffraction Gratings ............................. 375
19.5 Concave Gratings ........................................ 377
19.6 Characteristics of Gratings ............................. 377
19.7 Efficiency of Diffraction Gratings ...................... 378
19.8 Manufacturing of Diffraction Gratings ................... 378
19.9 Diffraction Grating Instruments ......................... 379
19.9.1 The Czerny-Turner Monochromator ................. 381
19.9.2 The Ebert-Fastie Monochromator .................. 381
19.9.3 The Monk-GilHeson Monochromator ................. 382
19.9.4 The Littrow Mounting ............................ 382
19.9.5 The EcheIIe Grating ............................. 383
19.9.6 The Paschen-Runge Mounting ...................... 384
19.9.7 The Rowland Mounting ............................ 384
19.9.8 The Vacuum Spectrograph ......................... 385
19.9.9 The Wadsworth Mounting .......................... 386
19.9.10 The Seya Namioka Mounting ....................... 386
19.9.11 The Robin Mounting .............................. 387
19.9.12 Flat Field Mounting ............................. 387
19.9.13 Transmission Grating Beamsplitters .............. 387
19.9.14 Double and Triple Monochromators ................ 387
19.9.15 The Grating Spectrometer ........................ 388
19.10 Experimental Work ....................................... 389
19.10.1 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 391
19.10.2 Procedure ....................................... 392
19.10.3 Safety Procedure ................................ 392
19.10.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 392
19.10.4.1 A Grating with a Conventional
Articulating Spectrometer Experiment
Set-Up ................................ 392
19.10.5 Data Collection ................................. 393
19.10.6 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 393
19.10.7 Results and Discussions ......................... 393
19.10.8 Conclusion ...................................... 394
19.10.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 394
19.11 List of References ...................................... 394
19.12 Appendices .............................................. 394
Further Reading ............................................... 394
Chapter 20
Interferometers ............................................... 397
20.1 Introduction ............................................ 397
20.2 The Michelson Interferometer ............................ 398
20.3 The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ......................... 400
20.4 The Twyman-Green Interferometer ......................... 401
20.5 The Fizeau Interferometer ............................... 402
20.6 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer .......................... 403
20.7 Other types of Interferometers .......................... 405
20.8 Experimental Work ....................................... 405
20.8.1 The Michelson Interferometer .................... 405
20.8.2 The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ................. 406
20.8.3 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 407
20.8.4 Procedure ....................................... 409
20.8.5 Safety Procedure ................................ 409
20.8.6 Apparatus Setup ................................. 409
20.8.6.1 The Michelson Interferometer ........... 409
20.8.6.2 The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ........ 410
20.8.7 Data Collection ................................. 414
20.8.7.1 The Michelson Interferometer ........... 414
20.8.7.2 The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ........ 414
20.8.8 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 414
20.8.8.1 The Michelson Interferometer ........... 414
20.8.8.2 The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ........ 414
20.8.9 Results and Discussions ......................... 414
20.8.9.1 The Michelson Interferometer ........... 414
20.8.9.2 The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ........ 414
20.8.10 Conclusion ...................................... 414
20.8.11 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 414
20.9 List of References ...................................... 415
20.10 Appendix ................................................ 415
Further Reading ............................................... 415
Chapter 21
Spectrometers and Spectroscopes ............................... 417
21.1 Introduction ............................................. 417
21.2 Spectral Analysis Instruments ............................ 418
21.2.1 Spectra ........................................... 418
21.2.2 The Prism ......................................... 418
21.2.3 The Diffraction Grating ........................... 419
21.2.4 Night Spectra Quest ............................... 419
21.2.5 Black Plastic Case Spectrometer ................... 420
21.2.6 Prism Spectrometer ................................ 420
21.2.7 Digital Spectrometer .............................. 421
21.2.8 Conventional Articulating Spectrometer ............ 421
21.3 Experimental Work ........................................ 422
21.3.1 Technique and Apparatus ........................... 422
21.3.2 Procedure ......................................... 424
21.3.2.1 Safety Procedure ......................... 424
21.3.2.2 Apparatus Setup .......................... 425
21.3.2.3 Night Spectra Quest Chart ................ 425
21.3.2.4 Black Plastic Case Spectrometer .......... 425
21.3.2.5 Prism Spectroscope ....................... 426
21.3.2.6 Digital Spectrometer ..................... 427
21.3.2.7 Conventional Articulating Spectrometer ... 427
21.3.3 Data Collection ................................... 428
21.3.3.1 Night Spectra Quest Chart ................ 428
21.3.3.2 Black Plastic Case Spectrometer .......... 428
21.3.3.3 Prism Spectroscope ....................... 428
21.3.3.4 Digital Spectrometer ..................... 428
21.3.3.5 Conventional Articulating Spectrometer ... 428
21.3.4 Calculations and Analysis ......................... 429
21.3.4.1 Night Spectra Quest Chart ................ 429
21.3.4.2 Black Plastic Case Spectrometer .......... 429
21.3.4.3 Prism Spectroscope ....................... 429
21.3.4.4 Digital Spectrometer ..................... 429
21.3.4.5 Conventional Articulating Spectrometer ... 429
21.3.5 Results and Discussions ........................... 429
21.3.5.1 Night Spectra Quest Chart ................ 429
21.3.5.2 Black Plastic Case Spectrometer .......... 429
21.3.5.3 Prism Spectroscope ....................... 429
21.3.5.4 Digital Spectrometer ..................... 429
21.3.5.5 Conventional Articulating Spectrometer ... 430
21.3.6 Conclusion ........................................ 430
21.3.7 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 430
21.4 List of References ....................................... 430
21.5 Appendices ............................................... 430
Further Reading ............................................... 430
Section IV
Optical Fibres ................................................ 433
Chapter 22
Fibre Optic Cables ............................................ 435
22.1 Introduction ............................................ 435
22.2 The Evolution of Fibre Optic Cables ..................... 435
22.3 Fibre Optic Cables ...................................... 439
22.4 Plastic Fibre Cables .................................... 440
22.5 Light Propagation in Fibre Optic Cables ................. 441
22.6 Refractive-Index Prolile ................................ 442
22.7 Types of Fibre Optic Cables ............................. 442
22.7.1 Single-Mode Step-Index Fibre Cable ............. 443
22.7.2 Multimode Step-Index Fibre Cable (Multimode
Fibre Cable) ................................... 443
22.7.3 Multimode Graded-lndex Fibre (Graded-lndex
Fibre Cable) ................................... 444
22.8 Polarization Maintaining Fibre Cables ................... 444
22.9 Specialty Fibre Cables .................................. 445
22.10 Fibre Cable Fabrication Techniques ...................... 445
22.10.1 Double Crucible Method ......................... 446
22.10.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition Processes ........... 447
22.10.3 Outside Vapour Deposition ...................... 448
22.10.4 Vapour Axial Deposition ........................ 448
22.10.5 Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition ............ 449
22.10.6 Plasma Chemical Vapour Deposition .............. 450
22.11 Fibre Drawing ........................................... 451
22.12 Numerical Aperture ...................................... 451
22.13 Modes in a Fibre Optic Cable ............................ 453
22.14 Light Source Coupling to a Fibre Cable .................. 454
22.15 Launching Light Conditions into Fibre Cables ............ 456
22.16 Fibre Tube Assembly ..................................... 457
22.17 Fibre Optic Cables versus Copper Cables ................. 457
22.18 Applications of Fibre Optic Cables ...................... 459
22.19 Experimental Work ....................................... 460
22.19.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and
Handling ....................................... 460
22.19.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation ......... 460
22.19.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles
Calculation .................................... 460
22.19.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity ... 461
22.19.5 Technique And Apparatus ........................ 461
22.19.6 Procedure ...................................... 463
22.19.7 Safety Procedure ............................... 463
22.19.8 Apparatus Set-Up ............................... 463
22.19.8.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection
and Handling ........................ 463
22.19.8.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends
Preparation ......................... 465
22.19.8.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles
Calculation ......................... 468
22.19.8.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output
Intensity ........................... 469
22.19.9 Data Collection ............................... 471
22.19.9.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection
and Handling ........................ 471
22.19.9.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends
Preparation ......................... 471
22.19.9.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles
Calculation ......................... 471
22.19.9.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output
Intensity ........................... 471
22.19.10 Calculations and Analysis ...................... 472
22.19.10.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection
and Handling ........................ 472
22.19.10.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends
Preparation ......................... 472
22.19.10.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles
Calculation ......................... 472
22.19.10.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output
Intensity ........................... 472
22.19.11 Results and Discussions ........................ 472
22.19.11.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection
and Handling ........................ 472
22.19.11.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends
Preparation ......................... 472
22.19.11.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles
Calculation ......................... 473
22.19.11.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output
Intensity ........................... 473
22.19.12 Conclusion ..................................... 473
22.19.13 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................ 473
22.20 List of References ...................................... 473
22.21 Appendix ................................................ 473
Further Reading ............................................... 473
Chapter 23
Advanced Fibre Optic Cables ................................... 475
23.1 Introduction ............................................. 475
23.2 Advanced Types of Fibre Optic Cables ..................... 475
23.2.1 Dual-Core Fibre for High-Power Laser ............. 476
23.2.2 Fibre Bragg Gratings ............................. 476
23.2.2.1 Manufacturing Method .................... 477
23.2.3 Chirped Fibre Bragg Gratings ..................... 478
23.2.3.1 Manufacturing Method .................... 479
23.2.4 Blazed Fibre Bragg Gratings ...................... 480
23.2.5 Nonzero-Dispersion Fibre-Optic Cables ............ 480
23.2.6 Photonic Crystal Fibre Cables .................... 480
23.2.7 Microstructure Fibre Cables ...................... 483
23.2.8 Polymer Holey-Fibre Cables ....................... 483
23.2.9 Image Fibre Cables ............................... 484
23.2.10 Liquid Crystal Photonic Bandgap Fibre Cables ..... 485
23.2.11 Lensed and Tapered Fibre Cables .................. 485
23.2.11.1 Advantages of Lensing Technology ....... 486
23.2.13 Nanoribbon Fibre Optic Cables .................... 489
23.3 Application of Advanced Fibre Cables ..................... 489
23.4 Experimental Work ........................................ 491
23.4.1 Conclusion ....................................... 491
23.4.2 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .................. 491
23.5 List of References ....................................... 491
23.6 Appendix ................................................. 491
Further Reading ............................................... 491
Chapter 24
Light Attenuation in Optical Components ....................... 493
24.1 Introduction ............................................. 493
24.2 Light Losses in an Optical Material ...................... 493
24.2.1 Absorption ........................................ 494
24.2.2 Dispersion ........................................ 494
24.2.3 Scattering ........................................ 494
24.2.4 Light Loss in Parallel Optical Surfaces ........... 495
24.2.5 Light Loss in an Epoxy Layer ...................... 495
24.2.6 Bending and Micro-Bending ......................... 496
24.3 Attenuation Calculations ................................. 497
24.4 Experimental Work ........................................ 499
24.4.1 Technique and Apparatus ........................... 499
24.4.2 Procedure ......................................... 500
24.4.3 Safety Procedure .................................. 500
24.4.4 Apparatus Setup ................................... 500
24.4.4.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to
Five Microscope Slides ................... 500
24.4.4.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single
Slide Inclined at Different Angles ....... 501
24.4.4.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Hpoxy
Layer Between Two Slides ................. 502
24.4.4.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Libre
Optic Cable .............................. 504
24.4.4.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Due to Micro-Bending ......... 505
24.4.4.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Coupled to a Grin Lens at
the Input and/or Output .................. 506
24.4.5 Data Collection ................................... 507
24.4.5.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to
Five Microscope Slides ................... 507
24.4.5.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single
Slide Inclined at Different Angles ....... 507
24.4.5.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Kpoxy
Layer between Two Slides ................. 508
24.4.5.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable .............................. 508
24.4.5.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Due to Micro-Bending ......... 508
24.4.5.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Coupled to a Grin Lens at
the Input and/or Output .................. 509
24.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ......................... 509
24.4.6.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to
Five Microscope Slides ................... 509
24.4.6.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single
Slide Inclined at Different Angles ....... 509
24.4.6.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Fpoxy
Layer between Two Slides ................. 509
24.4.6.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable .............................. 510
24.4.6.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Due to Micro-Bending ......... 510
24.4.6.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Coupled to a Grin Lens at
the Input and/or Output .................. 510
24.4.7 Results and Discussions ........................... 510
24.4.7.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to
Five Microscope Slides ................... 510
24.4.7.2 Laser Light Power Loss through
a Single Slide Inclined at Different
Angles ................................... 510
24.4.7.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Epoxy
Layer Between Two Slides ................. 510
24.4.7.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable .............................. 511
24.4.7.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Due to Micro-Bending ......... 511
24.4.7.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-
Optic Cable Coupled to a Grin Lens at
the Input and/or Output .................. 511
24.4.8 Conclusion ........................................ 511
24.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 511
24.5 List of References ....................................... 511
24.6 Appendices ............................................... 511
Further Reading ............................................... 511
Chapter 25
Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Installations ..................... 513
25.1 Introduction ............................................. 513
25.2 Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications ................. 514
25.2.1 Indoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications ... 514
25.2.2 Outdoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and
Applications ...................................... 515
25.2.3 Indoor/Outdoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and
Applications ...................................... 516
25.2.4 Other Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications .... 517
25.3 Fibre-Optic Cable Installation Methods ................... 517
25.3.1 Indoor Fibre-Optic Cable Installation ............. 517
25.3.2 Cable Installation in Tray and Duct Systems ....... 518
25.3.3 Conduit Installation .............................. 519
25.3.4 Pulling Fibre-Optic Cable Installation ............ 519
25.3.5 Fibre-Optic Cables Direct Burial Installation ..... 520
25.3.6 Fibre-Optic Cable Aerial Installation ............. 521
25.3.7 Air-Blown Fibre Cable Installation ................ 521
25.3.8 Other Fibre Cable Installation Methods ............ 521
25.4 Standard Hardware for Fibre-Optic Cables ................. 522
25.4.1 Fibre Splice Closures ............................. 522
25.4.2 Rack with Panels .................................. 523
25.4.3 Connector Housings ................................ 523
25.4.4 Patch Panels ...................................... 524
25.4.5 Splice Housings ................................... 524
25.4.6 Wall Outlets ...................................... 524
25.4.7 Fibre-Optic Testing Equipment ..................... 525
25.5 Fibre-Optic Cable Test Requirements ...................... 525
25.6 Experimental Work ........................................ 525
25.6.1 Technique and Apparatus ........................... 526
25.6.2 Procedure ......................................... 526
25.6.3 Safety Procedure .................................. 526
25.6.4 Apparatus Setup ................................... 527
25.6.4.1 Fibre-Optic Cable Installation ........... 527
25.6.5 Data Collection ................................... 527
25.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ......................... 527
25.6.7 Results and Discussions ........................... 527
25.6.8 Conclusion ........................................ 527
25.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................... 528
25.7 List of References ....................................... 528
25.8 Appendix ................................................. 528
Further Reading ............................................... 528
Chapter 26
Fibre-Optic Connectors ........................................ 529
26.1 Introduction ............................................ 529
26.2 Applications of Connectors and Splices .................. 529
26.3 Requirements of Connectors and Splices .................. 530
26.4 Fibre Connectors ........................................ 530
26.5 Mechanical Considerations ............................... 532
26.5.1 Durability ....................................... 533
26.5.2 Environmental Considerations ..................... 533
26.5.3 Compatibility .................................... 533
26.6 Fibre-Optic Connector Types ............................. 533
26.7 Adapters for Different Fibre-Optic Connector Types ...... 534
26.8 Fibre-Optic Connector Structures ........................ 534
26.9 Fibre-Optic Connector Assembly Techniques ............... 535
26.9.1 Common Fibre Connector Assembly ................. 535
26.9.2 Hot-Melt Connector .............................. 535
26.9.3 Epoxyless Connector ............................. 535
26.9.4 Automated Polishing ............................. 536
26.9.5 Fluid Jet Polishing ............................. 536
26.9.6 Fibre-Optic Connector Cleaning .................. 536
26.9.7 Connector Testing ............................... 536
26.10 Fibre Splicing .......................................... 538
26.10.1 Mechanical Splicing ............................. 538
26.10.1.1 Key-Lock Mechanical Fibre-Optic
Splices ............................... 540
26.10.1.2 Table-Type Mechanical Fibre-Optic
Splices ............................... 540
26.11 Fusion Splices .......................................... 541
26.11.1 Splice Testing .................................. 541
26.12 Connectors versus Splices ............................... 541
26.13 Experimental Work ....................................... 542
26.13.1 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 542
26.13.2 Procedure ....................................... 543
26.13.3 Safety Procedure ................................ 543
26.13.4 Apparatus Setup ................................. 543
26.13.4.1 Case (a): Building FSMA Connectors .... 543
26.13.4.2 Case (b): Testing Connection Loss in
Two Connectors ........................ 545
26.13.4.3 Case (c): Testing Connection Loss in
a Mechanical Splice ................... 546
26.13.4.4 Case (d): Testing Connection Loss in
a Fusion Splice ....................... 548
26.13.5 Data Collection ................................. 548
26.13.5.1 Case (a): Building a Connector ........ 548
26.13.5.2 Case (b): Testing Connection Loss in
Two Connectors ........................ 548
26.13.5.3 Case (c): Testing Connection Loss in
a Mechanical Splice ................... 549
26.13.5.4 Case (d): Testing Connection Loss in
a Fusion Splice ....................... 549
26.13.6 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 549
26.13.6.1 Case (a): Building a Connector ........ 549
26.13.6.2 Case (b): Testing Connection Loss in
Two Connectors ........................ 549
26.13.6.3 Case (c): Testing Connection Loss in
a Mechanical Splice ................... 549
26.13.6.4 Case (d): Testing Connection Loss in
a Fusion Splice ....................... 549
26.13.7 Results and Discussions ......................... 549
26.13.7.1 Case (a): Building a Connector ........ 549
26.13.7.2 Case (b): Testing Connection Loss in
Two Connectors ........................ 550
26.13.7.3 Case (c): Testing Connection Loss in
a Mechanical Splice ................... 550
26.13.7.4 Case (d): Testing Connection Loss in
a Fusion Splice ....................... 550
26.13.8 Conclusion ...................................... 550
26.13.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 550
26.14 List of References ...................................... 550
26.15 Appendix ................................................ 550
Further Reading ............................................... 550
Chapter 27
Passive Fibre Optic Devices ................................... 553
27.1 Introduction ............................................ 553
27.2 2x2 Couplers ............................................ 553
27.3 3 dB Couplers ........................................... 555
27.4 Y-Couplers .............................................. 556
27.5 Star Couplers ........................................... 557
27.6 Coupler Construction .................................... 558
27.6.1 Fused Taper Couplers ............................. 558
27.6.2 Polishing D-Section Couplers ..................... 558
27.6.3 Twin Core Fibre Couplers ......................... 558
27.7 The Principle of Reciprocity ............................ 558
27.8 Proximity Sensor ........................................ 559
27.9 Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ............................. 560
27.10 Optical Isolators ....................................... 560
27.11 Optical Circulators ..................................... 561
27.12 Optical Filters ......................................... 563
27.12.1 Fixed Optical Filters ........................... 563
27.12.2 Tunable Optical Fillers ......................... 564
27.12.2.1 Fibre Fabry-Perot Tunable Filters ..... 565
27.12.2.2 Mach-Zehndcr Interferometer Tunable
Filters ............................... 565
27.12.2.3 Fibre Grating Tunable Filters ......... 566
27.12.2.4 Liquid Crystal Tunable Fillers ........ 566
27.12.2.5 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fillers ......... 567
27.12.2.6 Thermo-Optic Tunable Filters .......... 567
27.12.2.7 Other Types of Tunable Filters ........ 568
27.13 Optical Fibre Ring Resonators ........................... 568
27.14 Optical Modulators ...................................... 568
27.15 Optical Attenuators ..................................... 569
27.15.1 Fixed Attenuators ............................... 569
27.15.2 Variable Attenuators ............................ 569
27.16 Other Types of Optical Fibre Devices .................... 570
27.17 Experimental Work ....................................... 570
27.17.1 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 570
27.17.2 Procedure ....................................... 571
27.17.3 Safety Procedure ................................ 571
27.17.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 571
27.17.4.1 Testing a 3 dB Coupler ................ 571
27.17.4.2 Testing a 1x4 3 dB Coupler ............ 572
27.17.4.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in
the Lab ............................... 573
27.17.4.4 Testing a Y-Coupler ................... 574
27.17.4.5 Testing a 1x4 Y-Coupler ............... 575
27.17.4.6 Testing a Proximity Sensor ............ 576
27.17.5 Data Collection ................................. 577
27.17.5.1 Testing a 3 dB Coupler ................ 577
27.17.5.2 Testing a 1x4 3dB Coupler ............. 577
27.17.5.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in
the Lab ............................... 578
27.17.5.4 Testing a Y-Coupler ................... 578
27.17.5.5 Testing a 1x4 Y-Coupler ............... 579
27.17.5.6 Testing a Proximity Sensor ............ 579
27.17.6 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 581
27.17.6.1 Testing a 3 dB Coupler ................ 581
27.17.6.2 Testing a 1x4 3 dB Coupler ............ 581
27.17.6.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in
the Lab ............................... 581
27.17.6.4 Testing a Y-Coupler ................... 581
27.17.6.5 Testing a 1x4 Y-Coupler ............... 581
27.17.6.6 Testing a proximity sensor ............ 582
27.17.7 Results and Discussions ......................... 582
27.17.7.1 Testing a 3 dB Coupler ................ 582
27.17.7.2 Tesinga 1x4 3 dB Coupler .............. 582
27.17.7.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in
the Lab ............................... 582
27.17.7.4 Testing a Y-Coupler ................... 582
27.17.7.5 Testing a 1x4 Y-Coupler ............... 582
27.17.7.6 Testing a Proximity Sensor ............ 583
27.17.8 Conclusion ...................................... 583
27.17.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 583
27.10 List of References ...................................... 583
27.11 Appendix ................................................ 583
Further Reading ............................................... 583
Chapter 28
Length Division Multiplexer ................................... 585
28.1 Introduction ............................................ 585
28.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing ........................ 585
28.3 Time-Division Multiplexing .............................. 586
28.4 Frequency-Division Multiplexing ......................... 587
28.5 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing .................. 587
28.6 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing ................. 587
28.7 Techniqucs for Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing ......... 588
28.7.1 Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing using
a Prism ......................................... 588
28.7.2 Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing using
a Diffraction Grating ........................... 588
28.7.3 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers/De-Multiplexers ... 589
28.7.4 Arrayed Waveguide Gratings ...................... 590
28.7.5 Fibre Bragg Grating ............................. 590
28.7.6 Thin Film Filters or Multilayer Interference
Filters ......................................... 591
28.7.7 Periodic Filters, Frequency Slicers,
Interleave Multiplexing ......................... 591
28.7.8 Mach-Zehnder Interferometer ..................... 592
28.8 Wavelength Division Multiplexers and De-Multiplexers .... 592
28.8.1 2-Channel WDM Devices ........................... 592
28.8.2 8-Channel WDM Devices ........................... 592
28.9 Experimental Work ....................................... 593
28.9.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer ................. 594
28.9.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer .............. 594
28.9.3 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 594
28.9.4 Procedure ....................................... 598
28.9.5 Safety Procedure ................................ 598
28.9.6 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 598
28.9.6.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer ........ 598
28.9.6.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer ..... 602
28.9.7 Data Collection ................................. 604
28.9.7.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer ........ 604
28.9.7.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer ..... 606
28.9.8 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 607
28.9.8.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer ........ 607
28.9.8.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer ..... 607
28.9.9 Results and Discussions ......................... 607
28.9.9.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer ........ 607
28.9.9.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer ..... 608
28.9.10 Conclusion ...................................... 608
28.9.11 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 608
28.10 List of References ...................................... 608
28.11 Appendix ................................................ 608
Further Reading ............................................... 608
Chapter 29
Optical Amplifiers ............................................ 611
29.1 Introduction ............................................. 611
29.2 Basic Applications of Optical Amplifiers ................. 611
29.2.1 In-Line Optical Amplifiers ........................ 612
29.2.2 Postamplifier ..................................... 612
29.2.3 Preamplifier ...................................... 613
29.2.4 In Local Area Networks ............................ 613
29.3 Types of Optical Amplifiers .............................. 614
29.3.1 Doped Fibre Optical Amplifiers .................... 614
29.3.1.1 Erbium-Doped Fibre Optical Amplifiers .... 614
29.3.1.2 Praseodymium-Doped Fluoride Optical
Amplifiers ............................... 615
29.3.1.3 Neodymium-Doped Optical Amplifiers ....... 615
29.3.1.4 Telluride-Based, Erbium-Doped Fibre
Optical Amplifiers ....................... 615
29.3.1.5 Thulium-Doped Optical Amplifiers ......... 616
29.3.1.6 Other Doped Fibre Optical Amplifiers ..... 616
29.3.2 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers .................. 616
29.3.3 Raman Fibre Optical Amplifiers .................... 617
29.3.4 Planer Waveguide Optical Amplifiers ............... 619
29.3.5 Linear Optical Amplifiers ......................... 619
29.4 Other Types of Optical Amplifiers ........................ 620
Further Reading ............................................... 620
Chapter 30
Optical Receivers ............................................. 623
30.1 Introduction ............................................ 623
30.2 Fibre Optic Receivers ................................... 623
30.3 Principles of Semiconductors ............................ 624
30.3.1 P-N Junction and Depletion Region ............... 624
30.3.2 The Fundamentals of Phoiodetection .............. 625
30.3.3 Leakage Current ................................. 625
30.3.4 Sources of Leakage Current ...................... 625
30.4 Properties of Semiconductor Photodeteclors .............. 626
30.4.1 Quantum Efficiency .............................. 626
30.4.2 Responsivity .................................... 626
30.4.3 Response Time ................................... 626
30.4.4 Sensitivity ..................................... 628
30.5 Types of Optical Detectors .............................. 628
30.5.1 Phototransistors ................................ 628
30.5.2 Photovoltaics ................................... 629
30.5.3 Melal-Semiconductor-Metal Detectors ............. 630
30.5.4 The P-I-N Photodiodes ........................... 631
30.5.5 Avalanche Photodiodes ........................... 632
30.6 Comparison of Photodetectors ............................ 633
30.7 Experimental Work ....................................... 634
30.7.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two Photodctector
Types ........................................... 634
30.7.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests ........................ 634
30.7.3 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 635
30.7.4 Procedure ....................................... 638
30.7.5 Safely Procedure ................................ 638
30.7.6 Apparatus Set-Up ................................ 638
30.7.6.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two
Photodetector Types .................... 638
30.7.6.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests ............... 638
30.7.7 Data Collection ................................. 639
30.7.7.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two
Photodetector Types .................... 639
30.7.7.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests ............... 639
30.7.7.2.1 Photovoltaic Panel .......... 639
30.7.7.2.2 Photovoltaic Panel with
a Lens ...................... 640
30.7.7.2.3 Photovoltaic Panel with
a Filter .................... 640
30.7.7.2.4 Photovoltaic Panel with
a Lens and Filter
Combination ................. 641
30.7.8 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 641
30.7.8.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two
Photodetector Types .................... 641
30.7.8.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests ............... 641
30.7.9 Results and Discussions ......................... 641
30.7.9.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two
Photodetector Types .................... 641
30.7.9.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests ............... 641
30.7.9.2.1 Photovoltaic Panel .......... 641
30.7.9.2.2 Photovoltaic Panel with
a Lens ...................... 642
30.7.9.2.3 Photovoltaic Panel with
a Filter .................... 642
30.7.9.2.4 Photovoltaic Panel with
a Lens and Filter
Combination ................. 642
30.7.10 Conclusion ...................................... 642
30.7.11 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 642
30.8 List of References ...................................... 642
30.9 Appendices .............................................. 642
Further Reading ............................................... 642
Chapter 31
Lasers ........................................................ 645
31.1 Introduction ............................................ 645
31.2 Light Emission .......................................... 645
31.3 Principle of the Laser .................................. 647
31.4 Thermal Equilibrium and Population Inversion ............ 649
31.5 Transverse and Longitudinal Modes ....................... 651
31.6 Gain .................................................... 652
31.7 Threshold Condition ..................................... 653
31.8 Power and Energy ........................................ 654
31.9 Three and Four Level Laser Systems ...................... 655
31.10 Types of Laser .......................................... 656
31.10.1 Gas Lasers ..................................... 657
31.10.1.1 Helium-Neon (HcNc) Laser ............. 657
31.10.1.2 Argon Ion (Ar+) Laser ................ 658
31.10.1.3 Carbon Dioxide Gas Laser ............. 659
31.10.2 Solid Slate Lasers ............................. 659
31.10.2.1 Ruby Laser ........................... 659
31.10.2.2 Ncodymium-YAG Laser .................. 661
31.10.2.3 Alexandrite Laser .................... 663
31.10.3 Dye Lasers ..................................... 663
31.10.4 Semiconductor Lasers ........................... 664
31.10.4.1 Energy Bands ......................... 664
31.10.4.2 Types of Lasers ...................... 666
31.10.4.3 Heterojunction Laser Diodes .......... 667
31.10.4.4 Double Heterostructure Laser
Diodes ............................... 668
31.10.4.5 Quantum Well Lasers .................. 668
31.10.4.6 Separate Confinement
Heterostructure Lasers ............... 668
31.10.4.7 Distributed Feedback Lasers .......... 668
31.10.4.8 Tunable Laser Diodes ................. 669
31.10.5 Other Types of Lasers .......................... 669
31.11 Comparison of Semiconductor and Conventional Lasers ..... 670
31.12 Classification of Lasers ................................ 670
31.13 Laser Beam Alignment .................................... 671
31.13.1 Alignment Using One, Two, and Multi-Axis
Positioners .................................... 671
31.13.2 Alignment Using Two Mirror Mounts .............. 672
31.13.3 Alignment Using Three and Four Mirror Mounts ... 673
31.13.4 Alignment Using a Risley Prism Pair ............ 674
31.13.5 Alignment Using an Adjustable Wedge ............ 676
31.14 Laser Beam Expansion .................................... 677
31.14.1 Characteristics of a Gaussian Beam ............. 677
31.14.2 The Rayleigh Range ............................. 680
31.14.3 Expansion and Collimation of a Laser Beam ...... 681
31.15 Laser Applications ...................................... 682
31.16 Experimental Work ....................................... 683
31.16.1 Hxperiment One Summary: Laser Alignment,
Transverse Modes, and Power Gain/Loss .......... 684
31.16.2 Experiment Two Summary: Laser Beam Alignment ... 685
31.16.3 Experiment Three Summary: Laser Beam
Expansion ...................................... 685
31.16.4 Technique and Apparatus ........................ 685
31.16.5 Procedure ...................................... 686
31.16.6 Safety Procedure ............................... 686
31.16.7 Apparatus Set-up ............................... 691
31.16.8 Experiment One: Laser Alignment, Transverse
Modes, and Power Gain/Loss ..................... 691
31.16.8.1 Building a Laser from Individual
Components .......................... 691
31.16.8.2 Varying the Laser Cavity Length
while Observing Transverse Modes .... 693
31.16.8.3 Estimating the Power Gain/Loss
from a Loss Element Placed in
the Cavity .......................... 694
31.16.9 Experiment Two: Laser Beam Alignment ........... 695
31.16.9.1 Alignment Using One, Two, and
Multi-Axis Positioners .............. 695
31.16.9.2 Alignment Using Two Mirror Mounts ... 697
31.16.9.3 Alignment Using Three and Four
Mirror Mounts ....................... 698
31.16.9.4 Alignment Using a Risley Prism
Pair ................................ 699
31.16.9.5 Alignment Using an Adjustable
Wedge ............................... 700
31.16.10 Experiment Three: Laser Beam Expansion ......... 700
31.16.10.1 Laser Beam Alignment ................ 700
31.16.10.2 Laser Beam Expansion by Galilean
Telescope ........................... 701
31.16.10.3 Laser Beam Expansion by Keplerian
Telescope ........................... 702
31.16.11 Data Collection ................................ 702
31.16.12 Experiment One: Laser Alignment, Transverse
Modes, and Power Gain/Loss ..................... 702
31.16.12.1 Building a Laser from Individual
Components .......................... 702
31.16.12.2 Varying the Laser Cavity Length
while Observing Transverse Modes .... 703
31.16.12.3 Estimating the Power Gain/Loss
from a Loss Element Placed in
the Cavity .......................... 703
31.16.13 Experiment Two: Laser Beam Alignment ........... 704
31.16.13.1 Alignment Using One, Two, and
Multi-Axis Positioners .............. 704
31.16.13.2 Alignment Using Two Mirror Mounts ... 705
31.16.13.3 Alignment Using Three and Four
Mirror Mounts ....................... 705
31.16.13.4 Alignment Using a Risley Prism
Pair ................................ 706
31.16.13.5 Alignment Using an Adjustable
Wedge ............................... 707
31.16.14 Experiment Three: Laser Beam Expansion ......... 707
31.16.14.1 Laser Beam Alignment ................ 707
31.16.14.2 Laser Beam Expansion by Galilean
Telescope ........................... 708
31.16.14.3 Laser Beam Expansion by Keplerian
Telescope ........................... 709
31.16.15 Calculations and Analysis ...................... 709
31.16.16 Experiment One: Laser Alignment, Transverse
Modes, and Power Gain/Loss ..................... 709
31.16.16.1 Building a Laser from Individual
Components .......................... 709
31.16.16.2 Varying the Laser Cavity Length
while Observing Transverse Modes .... 710
31.16.16.3 Estimating the Power Gain/Loss
from a Loss Element Placed in
the Cavity .......................... 710
31.16.17 Experiment Two: Laser Beam Alignment ........... 710
31.16.17.1 Alignment Using One, Two, and
Multi-Axis Positioners .............. 710
31.16.17.2 Alignment Using Two Mirror Mounts ... 710
31.16.17.3 Alignment Using Three and Four
Mirror Mounts ....................... 710
31.16.17.4 Alignment Using a Risley Prism
Pair ................................ 710
31.16.17.5 Alignment Using an Adjustable
Wedge ............................... 710
31.16.18 Experiment Three: Laser Beam Expansion ......... 710
31.16.18.1 Laser Beam Alignment ................ 710
31.16.18.2 Laser Beam Expansion by Galilean
Telescope ........................... 710
31.16.18.3 Laser Beam Expansion by Keplerian
Telescope ........................... 711
31.16.19 Results and Discussions ........................ 711
31.16.20 Experiment One: Laser Alignment, Transverse
Modes, and Power Gain/Loss ..................... 711
31.16.20.1 Building a Laser from Individual
Components .......................... 711
31.16.20.2 Varying the Laser Cavity Length
while Observing Transverse Modes .... 711
31.16.20.3 Estimating the Power Gain/Loss
from a Loss Element Placed in
the Cavity .......................... 711
31.16.21 Experiment Two: Laser Seam Alignment ........... 711
31.16.21.1 Alignment Using One, Two, and
Multi-Axis Positioners .............. 711
31.16.21.2 Alignment Using Two Mirror Mounts ... 711
31.16.21.3 Alignment Using Three and Four
Mirror Mounts ....................... 711
31.16.21.4 Alignment Using a Risley Prism
Pair ................................ 712
31.16.21.5 Alignment Using an Adjustable
Wedge ............................... 712
31.16.22 Experiment Three: Laser Beam Expansion ......... 712
31.16.22.1 Laser Beam Alignment ................ 712
31.16.22.2 Laser Beam Expansion by Galilean
Telescope ........................... 712
31.16.22.3 Laser Beam Expansion by Keplerian
Telescope ........................... 712
31.16.23 Conclusion ..................................... 712
31.16.24 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................ 712
31.17 List of References ...................................... 712
31.18 Appendices .............................................. 712
Further Reading ............................................... 712
Chapter 32
Optical Switches .............................................. 715
32.1 Introduction ............................................ 715
32.2 Opto-Mechanical Switches ................................ 716
32.3 Electro-Optic Switches .................................. 726
32.4 Thermo-Optic Switches ................................... 729
32.4.1 Switch Logic .................................... 731
32.4.1.1 Switching Unit Configuration ........... 731
32.5 Acousto-Oplic Switches .................................. 734
32.6 Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems ........................ 734
32.7 3D Mems Based Optical Switches .......................... 737
32.8 Micro-Opto-Mcchanical Systems ........................... 738
32.9 Experimental Work ....................................... 739
32.9.1 A 1x2 Switch with one Laser Source .............. 739
32.9.2 Two 1x2 Switches with Two Laser Sources ......... 739
32.9.3 A 2x2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror ............. 739
32.9.4 A 1x2 Switch Using a Prism ...................... 741
32.9.5 Technique and Apparatus ......................... 742
32.9.6 Procedure ....................................... 745
32.9.7 Safety Procedure ................................ 745
32.9.8 Apparatus Set-up ................................ 745
32.9.8.1 A 1x2 Switch with One Laser Source .... 745
32.9.8.2 Two 1x2 Switches with Two Laser
Sources ............................... 747
32.9.8.3 A 2x2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror ... 749
32.9.8.4 A 1x2 Switch Using a Prism ............ 750
32.9.9 Data Collection ................................. 752
32.9.9.1 A 1x2 Switch with One Laser Source .... 752
32.9.9.2 Two 1x2 Switches with Two Laser
Sources ............................... 752
32.9.9.3 A 2x2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror ... 753
32.9.9.4 A 1x2 Switch Using a Prism ............ 753
32.9.10 Calculations and Analysis ....................... 754
32.9.10.1 A 1x2 Switch with One Laser Source .... 754
32.9.10.2 Two 1x2 Switches with Two Laser
Sources ............................... 754
32.9.10.3 A 2x2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror ... 754
32.9.10.4 A 1x2 Switch Using a Prism ............ 754
32.9.11 Results and Discussions ......................... 754
32.9.11.1 A 1x2 Switch with One Laser Source .... 754
32.9.11.2 Two 1x2 Switches with Two Laser
Sources ............................... 754
32.9.11.3 A 2x2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror ... 754
32.9.11.4 A 1x2 Switch Using a Prism ............ 754
32.9.12 Conclusion ...................................... 755
32.9.13 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................. 755
32.10 List of References ...................................... 755
32.11 Appendices .............................................. 755
Further Reading ............................................... 755
Chapter 33
Optical Fibre Communications .................................. 757
33.1 Introduction ............................................ 757
33.2 The Evolution of Communication Systems .................. 758
33.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum Overview ....................... 758
33.4 The Evolution of Fibre Optic Systems .................... 760
33.5 Undersea DWDM Cable Network (SEA-ME-WE-3) ............... 761
33.6 Basic Communication Systems ............................. 762
33.7 Types of Topologies ..................................... 763
33.7.1 Bus Topology ..................................... 763
33.7.2 Ring Topology .................................... 763
33.7.3 Star Topology .................................... 764
33.7.4 Mesh Topology .................................... 764
33.7.5 Tree Topology .................................... 764
33.8 Types of Networks ....................................... 764
33.8.1 Home-Area Networks ............................... 765
33.8.2 Local-Area Networks .............................. 766
33.8.3 Campus-Area Networks ............................. 766
33.8.4 Metropolitan-Area Networks ....................... 766
33.8.5 Wide-Area Networks ............................... 767
33.9 Submarine Cables ........................................ 768
33.10 Open System Interconnection ............................. 769
33.10.1 Physical (Layer 1) .............................. 769
33.10.2 Data Link (Layer 2) ............................. 769
33.10.3 Network (Layer 3) ............................... 770
33.10.4 Transport (Layer 4) ............................. 770
33.10.5 Session (Layer 5) ............................... 770
33.10.6 Presentation (Layer 6) .......................... 771
33.10.7 Application (Layer 7) ........................... 771
33.11 Performance of Passive Linear Oplical Networks .......... 775
33.11.1 Power Budget Calculation ........................ 776
33.11.2 Nearest-Distance Power Budget ................... 776
33.11.3 Largest-Distance Power Budget ................... 776
33.12 Performance of Star Optical Networks .................... 777
33.13 Transmission Links ...................................... 778
33.13.1 Analogue Signals ................................ 778
33.13.2 Digital Signals ................................. 778
33.13.3 Converting Analogue Signal to Digital Signal .... 779
33.13.4 Bit Error Rate (BER) ............................ 781
33.13.5 Fibre Optic Telecommunication Equipment and
Devices ......................................... 782
33.14 SONET/SDH ............................................... 782
33.14.1 Definition of SONET and SDH ..................... 782
33.14.2 SONET/SDH Purposes and Features ................. 783
33.15 Multiplexing Terminology and Signaling Hierarchy ........ 784
33.15.1 Existing Multiplexing Terminology and Digital
Signaling Hierarchy ............................. 784
33.15.2 SONET Multiplexing Terminology and Oplical
Signaling Hierarchy ............................. 785
33.15.3 SDH Multiplexing Terminology and Optical
Signaling Hierarchy ............................. 787
33.16 SONET and SDH Transmission Rates ........................ 787
33.17 North American Optical and Digital Signal Designation ... 788
33.18 SONET Systems ........................................... 788
33.19 STS-1 Frame Structure ................................... 789
33.19.1 Serial Transmission ............................. 790
33.19.2 Transport Overhead .............................. 791
33.19.3 STS-1 SPE Path Overhead ......................... 791
33.19.4 Multiplexing Method ............................. 791
33.20 Metro and Long-Haul Optical Networks .................... 791
33.21 Network Configuration ................................... 793
33.21.1 Automatic Protection Switching (APS) ............ 793
33.21.2 SONET/SDH Ring Configurations ................... 793
33.21.2.1 Two-Fibre UPSR Configuration .......... 793
33.21.2.2 Four-Fibre BLSR Configuration ......... 794
33.21.3 Generic SONET Network ........................... 797
33.21.4 SONET ADM ....................................... 797
33.21.5 Dense WDM Deployment ............................ 798
Further Reading ............................................... 798
Chapter 34
Fibre Optic Lighting .......................................... 801
34.1 Introduction ............................................ 801
34.2 Light ................................................... 801
34.3 Electrical Energy Consumption by Lighting ............... 802
34.4 Light Measurement ....................................... 803
34.4.1 Luminous Flux or Light Output .................... 803
34.4.2 Luminous Efficacy ................................ 803
34.4.3 Luminous Flux Density of Lighting Level .......... 804
34.5 Electrical Lighting System .............................. 805
34.6 Fibre Optic Lighting System ............................. 806
34.7 Advantages of Fibre Optic Lighting ...................... 807
34.8 Fibre Optic Lighting Applications ....................... 808
34.9 Experimental Work ....................................... 808
34.9.1 Technique and Apparatus .......................... 809
34.9.2 Procedure ........................................ 809
34.9.3 Safety Procedure ................................. 810
34.9.4 Apparatus Set-Up ................................. 810
34.9.4.1 Fibre Optic Lighting with Diffuser ...... 810
34.9.4.2 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lens and
Diffuser ................................ 811
34.9.4.3 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lenses and
Diffuser ................................ 811
34.9.5 Data Collection .................................. 812
34.9.5.1 Fibre Optic Lighting with Diffuser ...... 812
34.9.5.2 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lens and
Diffuser ................................ 812
34.9.5.3 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lenses and
Diffuser ................................ 812
34.9.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................ 812
34.9.6.1 Fibre Optic Lighting with Diffuser ...... 812
34.9.6.2 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lens and
Diffuser ................................ 813
34.9.6.3 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lenses and
Diffuser ................................ 813
34.9.7 Results and Discussions .......................... 813
34.9.7.1 Fibre Optic Lighting with Diffuser ...... 813
34.9.7.2 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lens and
Diffuser ................................ 813
34.9.7.3 Fibre Optic Lighting with Lenses and
Diffuser ................................ 813
34.9.8 Conclusion ....................................... 813
34.9.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .................. 813
34.10 List of References ...................................... 814
34.11 Appendix ................................................ 814
Further Reading ............................................... 814
Section V
Testing ....................................................... 815
Chapter 35
Fibre Optic Testing ........................................... 817
35.1 Introduction ............................................ 817
35.2 Testing Photonics Components ............................ 817
35.3 Optical Power Measurements (Intensity) .................. 818
35.3.1 Optical Power Measurement Units ................ 819
35.3.2 Optical Power Loss Measurements ................ 819
35.3.2.1 Insertion Loss ........................ 819
35.3.2.2 Crosstalk ............................. 819
35.3.2.3 Polarization Dependent Loss ........... 820
35.3.2.4 Return Loss or Back reflection ........ 821
35.3.2.5 Temperature Dependent Loss ............ 821
35.3.2.6 Wavelength Dependent Loss ............. 821
35.3.2.7 Chromatic Dispersion .................. 822
35.4 Optical Frequency Measurements .......................... 822
35.5 Testing Optical Fibre Switches .......................... 823
35.5.1 Mechanical Tests ............................... 823
35.5.2 Environmental Tests ............................ 824
35.5.3 Repeatability Test ............................. 824
35.5.4 Speed Test ..................................... 825
35.6 Light Wavelength Measurements ........................... 825
35.7 Device Power Handling Tests ............................. 826
35.8 Troubleshooting ......................................... 826
35.9 Sources of Error During Fibre Optic Measurements ........ 826
35.9.1 Resolution ..................................... 826
35.9.2 Accuracy ....................................... 827
35.9.3 Stability (Drift) .............................. 827
35.9.4 Linearity ...................................... 827
35.9.5 Repeatability Error ............................ 827
35.9.6 Reproducibility ................................ 828
35.10 Experimental Work ....................................... 828
35.10.1 Testing A Fibre Optic Device Using an Optical
Spectrum Analyser .............................. 829
35.10.2 Testing Mechanical Properties of Fibre Optic
Devices ........................................ 829
35.10.3 Testing A Fibre Optic Cable Using an Optical
Spectrum Analyser .............................. 829
35.10.4 Technique and Apparatus ........................ 830
35.10.5 Procedure ...................................... 830
35.10.6 Safety Procedure ............................... 830
35.10.7 Apparatus Set-Up ............................... 831
35.10.7.1 Testing A Fibre Optic Device Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 831
35.10.7.1.1 Measuring the IL of
a wavelength-independent
DUT ..................... 833
35.10.7.1.2 Measuring the IL of
a wavelength-dependent
DUT ..................... 834
35.10.7.2 Testing Mechanical Properties of
Fibre Optic Devices ................. 835
35.10.7.3 Testing A Fibre Optic Cable Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 835
35.10.8 Data Collection ................................ 837
35.10.8.1 Testing A Fibre Optic Device Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 837
35.10.8.2 Testing Mechanical Properties of
Fibre Optic Devices ................. 837
35.10.8.3 Testing A Fibre Optic Cable Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 837
35.10.9 Calculations and Analysis ...................... 837
35.10.9.1 Testing A Fibre Optic Device Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 837
35.10.9.2 Testing Mechanical Properties of
Fibre Optic Devices ................. 837
35.10.9.3 Testing A Fibre Optic Cable Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 838
35.10.10 Results and Discussion ......................... 838
35.10.10.1 Testing A Fibre Optic Device Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 838
35.10.10.2 Testing Mechanical Testing
Properties of Fibre Optic Devices ... 838
35.10.10.3 Testing A Fibre Optic Cable Using
an Optical Spectrum Analyser ........ 838
35.10.11 Conclusion ..................................... 839
35.10.12 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ................ 839
35.11 List of References ...................................... 839
35.12 Appendices .............................................. 839
Further Reading ............................................... 839
Section VI
Safety ........................................................ 841
Chapter 36
Photonics Laboratory Safety ................................... 843
36.1 Introduction ............................................ 843
36.2 Electrical Safety ....................................... 843
36.2.1 Fuses/Circuit Breakers ........................... 843
36.2.2 Switches ON/OFF .................................. 845
36.2.3 Plugs ............................................ 845
36.2.4 Wall Outlets ..................................... 846
36.2.5 Cords ............................................ 847
36.2.6 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters ................ 848
36.3 Light Sources ........................................... 849
36.4 Devices and Equipment ................................... 850
36.5 Audio-Visual and Computer Peripherals ................... 850
36.6 Handling of Fibre Optic Cables .......................... 850
36.7 Epoxy Adhesives and Sealants ............................ 851
36.8 Cleaning Optical Components ............................. 851
36.9 Optic/Optical Fibre Devices and Systems ................. 852
36.10 Cleaning Chemicals ...................................... 852
36.11 Warning Labels .......................................... 852
36.12 Laser Safety ............................................ 853
36.13 Laser Safety Tips ....................................... 855
36.14 Indoor Air Quality ...................................... 857
36.15 Other Considerations .................................... 857
Further Reading ............................................... 859
Section VII
Miscellaneous ................................................. 861
Appendix A: Details of the Devices, Components, Tools, and
Parts ............................................. 863
Appendix B: Alignment Procedure of a Conventional
Articulating Spectrometer ......................... 879
Appendix C: Lighting Lamps .................................... 883
Appendix D: International System of Units (SI) ................ 891
Glossary ...................................................... 895
Index ......................................................... 903
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