Preface ........................................................ xi
1. Introduction ................................................ 1
1-1. Role of Forest Mensuration in Forest Management ....... 2
1-2. Forest Mensuration as a Tool for Monitoring Forests ... 2
2. Principles of Measurement ................................... 5
2-1. Scales of Measurement ................................. 6
2-2. Units of Measurement .................................. 8
2-3. Systems of Measurement ................................ 8
2-4. Variables ............................................ 13
2-5. Precision, Accuracy, and Bias ........................ 14
2-6. Significant Digits and Rounding Off .................. 15
2-7. Data Summary and Presentation ........................ 20
2-8. Fundamental Measurements ............................. 24
3. Basic Statistical Concepts ................................. 28
3-1. Descriptive Statistics ............................... 28
3-2. Frequency Distributions .............................. 32
3-3. Measures of Central Tendency ......................... 33
3-4. Measures of Dispersion ............................... 36
3-5. Sampling Error ....................................... 39
3-6. Sample Size Determination ............................ 45
3-7. Estimation of Totals ................................. 47
3-8. Regression and Correlation ........................... 48
3-9. Hypothesis Testing ................................... 49
4. Land Area Determination .................................... 53
4-1. Land Distance and Area Units ......................... 54
4-2. Measuring Distances .................................. 54
4-3. Measuring Area in the Field .......................... 60
4-4. Measuring Area Using Maps and Photos ................. 60
4-5. Determination of Photo Scale ......................... 64
4-6. Determination of Direction Using a Compass ........... 68
4-7. U.S. Public Land Surveys ............................. 71
4-8. Global Positioning Systems ........................... 74
4-9. Geographic Information Systems ....................... 78
5. Individual Tree Parameters ................................. 81
5-1. Age .................................................. 81
5-2. Tree Diameters and Areas ............................. 85
5-3. Height ............................................... 99
5-4. Form ................................................ 110
5-5. Crown Parameters .................................... 113
6. Determination of Tree Volume .............................. 118
6-1. Determination of Cubic Volume ....................... 119
6-2. Volume Tables ....................................... 136
6-3. Construction of Volume Tables ....................... 141
6-4. Volume Distribution in Trees ........................ 145
7. Determination of Tree Weight .............................. 151
7-1. Factors Influencing Wood Weight Estimates ........... 152
7-2. Tree Weight Relationships ........................... 157
8. Stand Parameters .......................................... 162
8-1. Age ................................................. 163
8-2. Species Composition ................................. 164
8-3. Diameter ............................................ 166
8-4. Height .............................................. 174
8-5. Density and Stocking ................................ 178
8-6. Volume and Weight ................................... 190
8-7. Site Quality ........................................ 193
9. Measurement of Primary Forest Products .................... 201
9-1. Units of Measurement ................................ 201
9-2. Log Rules ........................................... 203
9-3. Board-Foot Log Rules ................................ 204
9-4. Cubic-Volume Log Rules .............................. 210
9-5. Log Scaling ......................................... 211
9-6. Scaling Stacked Volume .............................. 216
9-7. Volume Unit Conversion .............................. 217
9-8. Scaling by Weight ................................... 221
10. Nontimber Forest Vegetation Parameters .................... 228
10-1. Understory Vegetation ............................... 229
10-2. Woody Detritus ...................................... 241
10-3. Forest Vegetation for Wildlife Management ........... 248
10-4. Forest Biomass ...................................... 250
10-5. Carbon Content ...................................... 254
11. Sampling Units for Estimating Parameters .................. 258
11-1. The Factor Concept .................................. 259
11-2. Fixed-Area Plots .................................... 261
11-3. Sampling Units with Variable Probability ............ 272
11-4. Distance-Based Sampling Units ....................... 283
11-5. Selecting Appropriate Sampling Units ................ 287
12. Forest Inventory .......................................... 290
12-1. Timber Estimation ................................... 290
12-2. Nontimber Estimation ................................ 292
12-3. Inventory Planning .................................. 293
12-4. Forest Inventory Design ............................. 296
12-5. Inventory Fieldwork ................................. 297
12-6. Calculation and Compilation ......................... 298
13. Sampling Designs in Forest Inventories .................... 299
13-1. Basic Considerations ................................ 299
13-2. Simple Random Sampling .............................. 305
13-3. Ratio and Regression Sampling ....................... 309
13-4. Cluster Sampling .................................... 314
13-5. Stratified Random Sampling .......................... 316
13-6. Multistage Sampling ................................. 320
13-7. Double Sampling ..................................... 324
13-8. Nonrandom Sampling .................................. 326
13-9. Repeated Sampling in Forest Inventory ............... 334
14. Inventory Using Sampling with Varying Probability ......... 337
14-1. Horizontal Point Sampling ........................... 338
14-2. List Sampling ....................................... 352
14-3. 3P Sampling ......................................... 355
15. Growth of the Tree ........................................ 359
15-1. Growth Curves ....................................... 360
15-2. Height and Diameter Growth .......................... 363
15-3. Determination of Diameter Growth from Increment
Cores ............................................... 365
15-4. Stem Analysis ....................................... 368
15-5. Areal and Volume Growth ............................. 371
15-6. Effects of Environmental Factors on Growth .......... 373
15-7. Growth Percentage ................................... 373
16. Stand Growth and Yield .................................... 377
16-1. Elements of Stand Growth ............................ 377
16-2. Growth and Yield Models ............................. 381
16-3. Using Stand Growth and Yield Models ................. 399
16-4. Assessing Stand Growth and Yield in Forest
Inventories ......................................... 400
Appendix ...................................................... 402
References .................................................... 412
Index ......................................................... 433
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