Preface ....................................................... iii
Part I. The Geohydroderm and Its Major Groundwater-Containing
Geosystems
1. Water Propelled Geological Processes and Shaped the
Landscapes of Our Planet .................................... 2
1.1 Water-Earth's Sculptor ................................. 2
1.2 Water-The Unique Fluid on Our Planet ................... 5
1.3 The Special Properties of Water that Are the Base of
All the Phenomena Dealt with in this Book .............. 7
1.4 Key Roles of the Oceans in the Dynamics of the
Global Water Cycle .................................... 10
1.5 Fresh Water Erodes Mountains but Exists Thanks to
Them .................................................. 11
1.6 Formation Water, Entrapped in Isolated
Rock-Compartments, Has a Meteoric Isotopic
Composition and an Imprint of Evaporitic Brines ....... 11
1.7 Location of Land and Sea Changed Constantly ........... 11
1.8 Petroleum Hydrology ................................... 12
1.9 Earth Exhibits Rocks that Are Unique Resources of
this Planet-Products of Water-Induced Processes ....... 13
1.10 The Dynamics of the Global Water Cycle Propelled
Biological Evolution .................................. 13
1.11 Summary Exercises ..................................... 15
2. Exploring and Understanding the Geohydroderm by Sequences
of Observations and Conclusions ............................ 16
2.1 Global Groundwater Research Within the Geohydroderm ... 16
2.2 The Active Cycle of Fresh Surface Water and
Unconfined Groundwater ................................ 18
2.3 Interstitial Water Entrapped in Rocks Beneath the
Vast Oceans ........................................... 24
2.4 Fossil Formation Waters Entrapped Within Sedimentary
Basins and Rift Valleys ............................... 27
2.5 Halite and Gypsum ..................................... 31
2.6 Shallow and Deep Groundwaters Are Indispensable
Geological Records .................................... 31
2.7 Brine-Spray-Tagged Meteoric Formation Water Is Also
Common Within Crystalline Shields ..................... 33
2.8 Petroleum Occurrence and Genesis ...................... 35
2.9 Warm and Boiling Groundwaters ......................... 37
2.10 Summary Exercises ..................................... 39
3. Basic Research Concepts, Aims and Queries, Tools, and
Strategies ................................................. 41
3.1 Basic Research Concepts and Terms ...................... 41
3.2 Research Aims and Queries .............................. 44
3.3 The Research Tools ..................................... 53
3.4 Research Strategies .................................... 61
3.5 Summary Exercises ...................................... 63
Part II. Shifting of Water and Salts Between Oceans and Continents
4. Shallow Cycling Groundwater, Its Tagging by Sea Spray,
and the Underlying Zone of Static Groundwater .............. 66
4.1 Groundwater Facies of the Geohydroderm ................. 66
4.2 Sea Spray Salts Concentrated Along a Large River
System - The Murray River Basin, Australia ............. 68
4.3 Sea Spray Salts Concentrated in a Closed Lake System
Within an Arid Zone - Yalgorup National Park,
Australia .............................................. 75
4.4 Sea Spray Salts Concentrated in Unconfined
Groundwater-Campaspe River Basin, Australia ............ 76
4.5 Sea Spray-Tagged Fresh and Saline Groundwaters in the
Unconfined Groundwater System at the Crystalline
Shield of the Wheatbelt, Australia ..................... 78
4.6 Sea Spray Versus Brine-Spray Tagging ................... 82
4.7 Sea-Derived Ions Serve as Benchmarks Identifying
Water-Rock Interactions ................................ 82
4.8 Gravitational Flow in the Unconfined Groundwater
System and Static Water Storage Beneath ................ 83
4.9 Summary Exercises ...................................... 91
5. Interstitial Waters in Rock Strata Beneath the Oceans ...... 92
5.1 Extending Our Hydrological Curiosity to Beneath the
Oceans ................................................ 92
5.2 The Deep Sea Drilling Project ......................... 93
5.3 Water Content in Suboceanic Sediments ................. 93
5.4 The Widespread Marine Facies of Interstitial Water
(Cl ~ 19 g/L, Cl/Br ~ 300, Diagenetic Changes Are
Common) ............................................... 94
5.5 Continental Brine-Tagged Facies: Salinity Higher
than Seawater Cl/Br 200 or Lower, Ca-Cl Present ....... 98
5.6 Information Retrievable from Below-Ocean
Interstitial Waters .................................. 108
5.7 Interstitial Water is Connate Water, Entrapped in
Its Host Rocks Since the Initial Stage of
Sedimentation ........................................ 111
5.8 Interstitial Waters Tagged by Brine-Spray Disclose
that the History of the Mediterranean Sea Basin
Included a Continental Stage ......................... 111
5.9 Geological Evidence Proves that the Mediterranean
Sea Underwent a Phase of Drying Up ................... 112
5.10 Summary Exercises .................................... 113
6. Salt, Gypsum, and Clay Strata Within Sedimentary
Basins Disclose Large-Scale Evaporitic Paleo-Landscapes ... 115
6.1 Minerals Formed Along the Continuous Evaporation
Path of Seawater and Notes on the Composition of
the Residual Brines .................................. 115
6.2 Formation of Halite and Gypsum Deposits
Necessitated Evaporation of Tremendous Amounts of
Seawater During Extended Time Intervals .............. 116
6.3 Evaporitic Paleo-Facies: Information Recorded by
Associated Formation Waters .......................... 117
6.4 The Permian "Saline Giant" of the Salado
Formation - An Ancient Evaporitic Megasystem ......... 118
6.5 Evaporite Deposits Are Common in Sedimentary
Basins ............................................... 119
6.6 Silurian Salt Deposits Were Not Dissolved by the
Nearby Formation Water ............................... 120
6.7 Recent Lowering of the Dead Sea Lowered the Coastal
Groundwater Base Flow and Initiated Rapid
Dissolution of a Buried 109000-Year-Old Halite Bed ... 121
6.8 The Many Preserved Salt Beds Manifest the
Preservation of Connate Groundwaters ................. 122
6.9 Limestone-Clay Alterations Reflect Alternating Sea
Transgressions and Regressions ....................... 123
6.10 Summary Exercises .................................... 123
Part III. Deep Groundwater Systems-Fossil Formation Waters
7. The Geosystem of the Fossil Brine-Tagged Meteoric
Formation Waters .......................................... 126
7.1 Formation Waters Within Sedimentary Basins ............ 126
7.2 Formation Waters Within Rift Valleys .................. 140
7.3 Fossil Nonsaline Groundwaters Tagged by CaCl2,
Formed During the Messinian, at the Land Bordering
the Dried-Up Mediterranean Sea ........................ 149
7.4 Some Physical Aspects of Formation Waters ............. 151
7.5 The Fruitcake Structure of the Formation Waters and
Petroleum-Containing Geosystem ........................ 153
7.6 A Brief History of the Basic Concept of Connate
Groundwater ........................................... 154
7.7 The Bottom Line: Brine-Spray-Tagged Formation Waters
Provide Markers of Paleo-Landscapes, Water Age, and
Paleoclimate .......................................... 155
7.8 Solving a Great Puzzle: Why Are Recent Groundwaters
Sea Tagged and Commonly Rather Fresh, Whereas
Formation Waters Are By and Large Saline and Brine
Tagged? ............................................... 155
7.9 Summary Exercises ..................................... 157
8. Fossil Formation Waters Range in Age from Tens of
Thousands to Hundreds of Millions of Years ................ 158
8.1 Confinement Ages of Connate Waters and Criteria to
Check Them ............................................ 158
8.2 Isotopic Dating of Fossil Groundwaters ................ 158
8.3 Hydraulic Age Calculations - An Erroneous Approach
to Confined Goundwaters, Which Are Static ............. 161
8.4 Radiogenic 40Ar Dating ................................ 163
8.5 Mixed Water Samples Are Commonly Encountered .......... 164
8.6 Isotopic Dating of Very Old Groundwaters .............. 166
8.7 Conclusions and Management Implications ............... 169
8.8 Summary Exercises ..................................... 170
9. Brine-Tagged Meteoric Formation Waters Are Also Common
in Crystalline Shields: Geological Conclusions
and Relevance to Nuclear Waste Repositories ............... 171
9.1 The Special Nature of Data Retrieved from Boreholes
in Crystalline Rocks .................................. 171
9.2 Observations Based on Data from the Fennoscandian
and Canadian Shields and Deduced Boundary
Conditions ............................................ 176
9.3 What Typifies Formation Waters Within Crystalline
Rocks? ................................................ 190
9.4 Results from the KTB Deep Research Boreholes .......... 194
9.5 Isotopic Dating of the Fossil Groundwaters Within
Shields ............................................... 196
9.6 Working Hypothesis: Tectonic "Fracture Pumps"
Introduced Meteoric Groundwater to Great Depths ....... 200
9.7 The Saline Waters in Shields Serve as a Geological
Record ................................................ 200
9.8 Nuclear Waste Disposal Implications ................... 201
9.9 Summary Exercises ..................................... 202
Part IV. Petroleum Hydrology
10. Anatomy of Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Fields
Highlighted by Formation Waters ........................... 205
10.1 Petroleum and Associated Formation Waters Are
Complementing Sources of Information ................ 205
10.2 Petroleum-Associated Formation Waters in the
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin .................... 206
10.3 Petroleum-Associated Formation Waters Within
Ordovician Host Rocks, Ontario, Canada .............. 212
10.4 Kettleman Dome Formation Waters Associated with
Petroleum-Key Observations and Concluded Boundary
Conditions .......................................... 213
10.5 Shallow Formation Water and Petroleum in Devonian
Rocks, Eastern Margin of the Michigan Basin ......... 217
10.6 Petroleum-Associated Brines in Paleozoic
Sandstone, Eastern Ohio ............................. 222
10.7 Formation Waters of the Mississippi Salt Dome
Basin Disclose Detailed Stages of Petroleum
Formation ........................................... 228
10.8 Norwegian Shelf: Petroleum-Associated Formation
Waters, Upper Triassic to Upper Cretaceous .......... 235
10.9 Lithostratigraphic Controls of
Compartmentalization Were Effective from the
Initial Stage of Subsidence and Further Evolved
Under Subsidence-Induced Compaction ................. 238
10.10 Summary Exercises ................................... 239
11. Evolution of Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum
Highlighted by the Facies of the Host Rocks and Coal ...... 240
11.1 Sediments Formed in Large-Scale Sea-Land Contact
Zones ................................................ 240
11.2 Lithological Evidence of Subaerial Exposure Phases ... 247
11.3 The Lithological Record of Inland Basins and Rift
Valleys .............................................. 249
11.4 Rock-Compartment Structures and Their Evolution ...... 252
11.5 Compartmentalization Was Effective from the Initial
Stage of Subsidence and Further Evolved Under
Compaction ........................................... 253
11.6 Summary Exercises .................................... 253
12. Petroleum and Coal Formation in Closed Compartments -
The Pressure-Cooker Model ................................. 255
12.1 Did Petroleum Migrate Tens and Even Hundreds of
Kilometers? .......................................... 255
12.2 Coal-A Fossil Fuel Formed with No Migration Being
Involved ............................................. 259
12.3 Boundary Conditions Set by Formation Waters and
Petroleum and Coal Deposits .......................... 262
12.4 The Pressure-Cooker Model of Petroleum Formation
and Concentration Within Closed Compartments ......... 263
12.5 Another Case Study Supporting the Pressure-Cooker
Model ................................................ 267
12.6 Pressure-Regulating Mechanisms Within Rock
Sequences Discussed in Light of the Fruitcake
Structure of Isolated Rock-Compartments .............. 268
12.7 Summary Exercises .................................... 269
Part V. Hydrology of Warm Groundwater and Superheated Volcanic
Systems
13. Mineral and Warm Waters: Genesis, Recreation Facilities,
and Bottling .............................................. 271
13.1 The Anatomy of Warm Springs .......................... 271
13.2 Medicinal and Healing Aspects of Warm and Mineral
Waters ............................................... 286
13.3 Developing the Resource - The Hydrochemist's Tasks ... 288
13.4 Local Exhibitions Disclosing the Anatomy of Warm
and Mineral Water Sources and Their Properties ....... 289
13.5 Bottled "Mineral Water" .............................. 290
13.6 Summary Exercises .................................... 290
14. Water in Hydrothermal and Volcanic Systems ................ 292
14.1 Hydrothermal Systems ................................. 292
14.2 Yellowstone National Park, Western United States ..... 293
14.3 Cerro Prieto, Northern Mexico ........................ 304
14.4 The Wairakei, Tauhara, and Mokai Hydrothermal
Region, New Zealand .................................. 310
14.5 Noble Gases in a Section Across the Hydrothermal
Field of Larderello, Italy ........................... 314
14.6 Fumaroles of Vulcano, Aeolian Island, Italy .......... 319
14.7 The Hydrology and Geochemistry of Superheated
Water in Hydrothermal and Volcanic Systems ........... 326
14.8 Summary Exercises .................................... 327
Part VI. Implementation, Research, and Education
15. Data Acquisition, Processing, Monitoring, and Banking ..... 329
15.1 Sample Collection and In Situ Measurements ........... 329
15.2 Checking the Laboratories' and Data Quality .......... 330
15.3 Types of Wells ....................................... 331
15.4 Multiparameter Studies ............................... 332
15.5 Multisampling ........................................ 334
15.6 Monitoring Networks .................................. 336
15.7 Effective Data Banks ................................. 339
15.8 Summary Exercises .................................... 340
16. Conclusions and Research Avenues .......................... 341
16.1 Criteria to Check Working Hypotheses Related
to Global Water Occurrences .......................... 341
16.2 Geosystems that Host Fluid Water-Research Topics ..... 348
16.3 Geological Records-Research Avenues .................. 350
16.4 Summary Exercises .................................... 352
17. Educational Aspects of Water, the Unique Fluid of Planet
Earth ..................................................... 354
17.1 List of Educational Topics ........................... 355
17.2 National Water and Man Museums ....................... 362
17.3 Local Exhibitions and Water and Man Demonstration
Centers .............................................. 363
17.4 Educational Water Recreation Parks ................... 364
17.5 Spas ................................................. 364
17.6 Teaching at School and Student Mini-Research
Projects ............................................. 364
17.7 Teaching at Universities ............................. 365
Epilogue: Three Energy Sources and One Transporter -
The Geo-Quartet Unique to Planet Earth .............. 367
Answers and Discussion of the Exercise Questions .............. 369
References .................................................... 381
Index ......................................................... 391
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