Volume 2
15 Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharges .................... 411
Alan Garscadden
15.1 Introduction ............................................ 411
15.2 Characteristics of the Atmospheric Pressure Glow
Discharge ............................................... 412
15.3 Near Cathode Phenomena at Atmospheric Pressure .......... 418
15.4 Boundary Controlled Discharges .......................... 421
15.5 Glow-to-Arc Stabilization Approaches .................... 423
15.6 RF Excited Glow Discharges .............................. 427
15.7 Microwave Excited Atmospheric Glow Discharges ........... 429
15.8 Atmospheric Discharges Using Gas-Liquid Interface ....... 429
15.9 Miniature Boundary Controlled Discharges ................ 431
15.10 Applications ............................................ 431
15.11 Summary and Recommendations for Future Research ......... 433
15.12 References .............................................. 435
16 High-Pressure Plasmas: Dielectric-Barrier and Corona
Discharges ............................................... 439
Ulrich Kogelschatz and Jürgen Salge
16.1 Introduction ............................................. 439
16.2 Dielectric-Barrier Discharges ............................ 439
16.2.1 Filamentary Discharges ............................ 440
16.2.1.1 Electrode Configurations and Discharge
Evolution ................................ 440
16.2.1.2 Microdischarge Properties ................ 443
16.2.1.3 Ionization, Dissociation, and Ensuing
Plasma Chemistry ......................... 443
16.2.1.4 Discharge Control ........................ 445
16.2.1.5 Numerical Modeling ....................... 446
16.2.2 Homogeneous Discharges ............................ 447
16.2.3 Applications ...................................... 448
16.2.3.1 Surface Treatment and Modification,
Coating .................................. 448
16.2.3.2 Ozone Generation ......................... 450
16.2.3.3 High-Power CO2 Lasers .................... 452
16.2.3.4 Excimer Lamps ............................ 453
16.2.3.5 Plasma Display Panels .................... 454
16.2.3.6 Pollution Control ........................ 455
16.2.3.7 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation ................ 455
16.3 Corona Discharges ........................................ 456
16.3.1 Direct Current (dc) Discharges .................... 456
16.3.1.1 Electrode Configurations, Properties,
and Discharge Evolution .................. 456
16.3.1.2 Current-Voltage Relations and Power
Consumption .............................. 456
16.3.1.3 Charging and Transport of Particles and
Droplets ................................. 457
16.3.2 Pulsed Corona Discharges .......................... 457
16.3.3 Applications ...................................... 458
16.3.3.1 Electrostatic Precipitators .............. 458
16.3.3.2 Pollution Control ........................ 459
16.3 References ............................................... 460
17 High-Pressure Microdischarges ............................ 463
Kurt H. Becker and Karl H. Schoenbach
17.1 Introduction ............................................. 463
17.2 History of Microdischarges ............................... 463
17.2.1 The Microhollow Cathode Discharge (MHCD) .......... 463
17.2.2 The Capillary Plasma Electrode Discharge .......... 465
17.2.3 Microplasmas for Chemical Analysis ................ 466
17.2.4 Other Microdischarges ............................. 466
17.2.5 The Cathode Boundary Layer Discharge .............. 468
17.3 Materials and Fabrication Techniques ..................... 469
17.4 Diagnostics of Microplasma and Microplasma Properties .... 471
17.4.1 Modes of Microplasma Operation .................... 471
17.4.2 Electron Temperature and Electron Energy
Distribution ...................................... 473
17.4.3 Electron Density .................................. 473
17.4.4 Gas Temperature ................................... 474
17.4.5 Microplasma Modeling .............................. 474
17.5 Applications of Microdischarges .......................... 475
17.5.1 Microplasmas for Environmental Applications ....... 475
17.5.1.1 Destruction of Volatile Organic
Compounds ................................ 476
17.5.1.2 Detection of Trace Contaminants .......... 478
17.5.2 Biological Applications of Microplasmas ........... 478
17.5.3 Microdischarges as UV Radiation Sources ........... 480
17.5.4 Microdischarges as Plasma Reactors ................ 482
17.5.5 Microdischarges as Plasma Cathodes ................ 483
17.5.6 Microplasmas for Gas and Surface Analysis ......... 484
17.5.6.1 Gas Analysis ............................. 484
17.5.6.2 Surface Treatment ........................ 486
17.6 Summary and Outlook ...................................... 487
17.7 References ............................................... 488
18 Materials Applications of High-Pressure Microplasmas ..... 495
R. Mohan Sankaran and Konstantinos P. Giapis
18.1 Introduction ............................................. 495
18.2 Microdischarge Setup ..................................... 495
18.3 Properties of Microplasma Sources ........................ 497
18.3.1 Current-Voltage Characteristics ................... 497
18.3.2 Optical Emission Spectroscopy ..................... 500
18.4 Nonlithographic Etching of Silicon Substrates ............ 501
18.4.1 Background ........................................ 501
18.4.2 Pattern Filling: Design of a Stencil Mask ......... 503
18.4.3 Etching Single Holes in Silicon ................... 504
18.4.4 Etching Patterns .................................. 508
18.5 Thin Film Deposition ..................................... 508
18.5.1 Background ........................................ 508
18.5.2 Polycrystallinc Diamond Films ..................... 510
18.5.3 Materials Characterization of Films ............... 512
18.6 Continuous Flow Microreactor Synthesis of
Nanoparticles ............................................ 514
18.6.1 Background ........................................ 514
18.6.2 Aerosol Synthesis and Characterization ............ 525
18.7 Particle Charging ........................................ 527
18.7.1 Materials Characterization of Silicon
Nanoparticles ..................................... 528
18.7.2 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy .................... 520
18.7 References ............................................... 522
19 Transient Plasma Ignition ................................ 525
Charles Cathey and Martin Gundersen
19.1 Introduction ............................................. 525
19.2 Streamer Motivation ...................................... 526
19.2.1 Power Modulator Technology for Generation of
Transient Plasma .................................. 530
19.2.2 Transient Plasma Combustion of Fuels in Constant
Volume Chambers ................................... 531
19.3 Pulse Detonation Engine .................................. 533
19.4 Internal Combustion Engine Applications .................. 537
19.5 Transient Plasma Tgnition in High-Altitude, High-Speed
Aircraft ................................................. 538
19.6 Summary .................................................. 540
19.7 References ............................................... 542
20 Transient Plasma-Assisted Diesel Exhaust Remediation ..... 543
M. Gundersen, V. Puchkarev, A. Kharlov, G. Roth,
J. Yampolsky, and D. Erwin
20.1 Introduction ............................................. 543
20.2 Experiment ............................................... 544
20.2.1 Diesel Exhaust Treatment .......................... 544
20.2.2 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIE) of NO/NOx ........ 545
20.3 Experimental Results ..................................... 545
20.3.1 Pulsed Power and Plasma Formation ................. 545
20.3.2 Time- and Space-Resolved NO/NOx Depletion ......... 547
20.3.3 Plasma Chemistry .................................. 548
20.3.4 Plasma-Assisted Catalyst .......................... 549
20.4 Summary .................................................. 549
20.5 References ............................................... 550
21 Plasma Display Panel ..................................... 551
Jae Koo Lee and John P. Verboncoeur
21.1 Introduction and Overview ................................ 551
21.2 History and Background ................................... 552
21.3 Alternating Current Plasma Display Panel (AC-PDP) ........ 552
21.3.1 The Plasma Discharge Driven by a High Voltage ..... 552
21.3.1.1 Paschen's Law for Breakdown .............. 552
21.3.1.2 Collisional Mean Free Paths .............. 555
21.3.2 One-Dimensional AC-PDP Model ...................... 555
21.3.3 Two-Dimensional AC-PDP Models ..................... 559
21.3.3.1 The Matrix and the Surface Discharge
AC-PDP ................................... 559
21.3.3.2 The Discharge Characteristics in
the AC-PDP Cell .......................... 560
21.3.4 Driving Voltage for the AC-PDP .................... 562
21.3.5 Research Status and Remaining Issues .............. 564
21.4 Other PDP Types .......................................... 565
21.5 Conclusions .............................................. 566
21.6 References ............................................... 567
22 Low-Pressure Discharge Light Sources ..................... 569
Graeme Lister
22.1 Introduction ............................................. 569
22.2 The Physics of Low-Pressure Discharge Lamps .............. 571
22.2.1 Collisional Processes ............................. 571
22.2.2 Radiation Transport ............................... 577
22.2.3 Ambipolar Diffusion and Cataphoresis .............. 572
22.2.4 Power Balance ..................................... 572
22.3 Conventional (Electroded) Fluorescent Lamps .............. 573
22.3.1 The Physics of Electroded Fluorescent Lamps ....... 573
22.3.2 Diagnostics and Modeling of the Positive Column ... 575
22.3.3 Diagnostics and Modeling of Electrode Regions ..... 578
22.4 Electrodeless Fluorescent Lamps .......................... 579
22.4.1 Potential Benefits of Electrodeless Discharges
for Lighting ...................................... 579
22.4.2 Electromagnetic Interference and Safety ........... 580
22.4.3 The Physics of Electrodeless Fluorescent Lamps .... 580
22.4.4 Inductive Fluorescent Discharge Lamps ............. 580
22.4.4.1 Reentrant Cavity Lamps ................... 581
22.4.4.2 Lamps with Outer Coils ................... 582
22.4.4.3 Toroidal Lamps ........................... 582
22.4.5 Capacitively Coupled Fluorescent Lamps ............ 583
22.4.6 Surface Wave Fluorescent Discharge Lamps .......... 584
22.4.7 Diagnostics and Modeling of Elcctrodeless Lamps ... 584
22.5 Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps ................................ 586
22.6 Rare Gas Discharges for Lighting ......................... 587
22.7 Alternatives to Mercury .................................. 588
22.8 Conclusions .............................................. 590
22.9 References ............................................... 590
23 High-Pressure Plasma Light Sources ....................... 595
Klaus Günther
23.1 Introduction and Basic Equations ......................... 595
23.2 Application Demands ...................................... 597
23.2.1 Photometric Properties ............................ 597
23.2.2 Operation Requirements ............................ 599
23.2.3 Costs and Environmental Aspects ................... 599
23.3 High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps and their
Operational Principle .................................... 600
23.3.1 The Plasma of HID Lamps ........................... 600
23.3.2 High-Pressure Mercury (HPM) Lamps ................. 603
23.3.3 Metal Halide (MH) Lamps ........................... 604
23.3.4 High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps .................. 606
23.3.5 Technical Applications ............................ 607
23.3.6 New Developments .................................. 607
23.4 Lamp Operation ........................................... 609
23.4.1 Starting of HID Lamps ............................. 609
23.4.2 Conventional Operation ............................ 670
23.4.3 Electronic Operation .............................. 610
23.4.3.1 General Considerations ................... 610
23.4.3.2 Electronic Control and New Discharge
Conditions ............................... 612
23.4.3.3 Dimming of HID Lamps ..................... 615
23.5 Conclusions .............................................. 616
23.6 References ............................................... 616
24 EUV Light Sources ........................................ 619
Larissa Juschkin, Günther Derra, and Klaus Bergmann
24.1 Introduction ............................................. 629
24.1.1 General ........................................... 619
24.1.2 EUV Lithography ................................... 620
24.1.3 EUV Light Sources ................................. 624
24.2 Plasmas as EUV Radiators ................................. 625
24.3 Laser-Produced Plasmas for EUV Generation ................ 632
24.3.1 Principles and Concepts ........................... 632
24.3.1.1 Targets .................................. 634
24.3.1.2 Lasers ................................... 634
24.3.2 Technological Aspects and Current Status .......... 635
24.4 Discharge-Produced Plasmas for EUV Generation ............ 635
24.4.1 Principles and Concepts ........................... 635
24.4.2 Technological Aspects and Current Status .......... 638
24.5 System Integration ....................................... 642
24.5.1 Debris Mitigation ................................. 642
24.5.2 Collector ......................................... 645
24.6 Outlook .................................................. 648
24.7 References ............................................... 648
25 Plasma Etching in Microelectronics ....................... 655
Harald H. Richter, Steffbn Marschmeyer, and André Wolff
25.1 Characterization of Plasma Etching ....................... 655
25.2 Etching Techniques ....................................... 657
25.2.1 Physical Etching .................................. 658
25.2.2 Chemical Etching .................................. 658
25.2.3 Chemical-Physical Etching ......................... 659
25.3 Equipment-Related Topics ................................. 660
25.4 Etch Chemistries ......................................... 662
25.5 Dry Etching in Advanced Technologies
(Selected Examples) ...................................... 663
25.5.1 Silicon Dry Etching ............................... 664
25.5.1.1 Trench Etching ........................... 664
25.5.1.2 Polysilicon Gate Etching ................. 665
25.5.2 Oxide Etch Processes .............................. 666
25.5.3 Metal Etch ........................................ 667
25.6 Process Control .......................................... 667
25.7 Plasma-Process-Induced Damage ............................ 669
25.7.1 Contamination Effects ............................. 670
25.7.2 Charging Damage ................................... 670
25.8 Summary and Future Outlook ............................... 671
25.9 References ............................................... 672
26 Magnetron Discharges for Thin Film Deposition ........... 675
Klaus Ellmer
26.1 Introduction ............................................ 675
26.2 Brief Historical Overview ............................... 675
26.3 Charges in a Magnetic Field ............................. 679
26.3.1 Drift of Charges in Crossed ExB Fields ........... 681
26.4 Principle of a Magnetron Discharge ...................... 682
26.5 Types of Magnetron Discharges ........................... 684
26.6 Discharge Characteristics ............................... 687
26.7 Potential Distribution .................................. 689
26.8 Excitation of Magnetron Sources ......................... 691
26.9 Reactive Magnetron Sputtering ........................... 693
26.10 Self-Sputtering of Metals ............................... 693
26.11 Ionized Magnetron Sputtering ............................ 694
26.12 Magnetron Sputtering of Thin Films ...................... 695
26.12.1 Metallic Films .................................. 696
26.12.2 Oxidie Coatings ................................. 699
26.12.3 Semiconducting Films ............................ 705
26.13 Industrial Magnetron Sputtering Systems ................. 708
26.14 Advantages and Limitations of Magnetron Sputtering
Sources ................................................. 708
26.15 References .............................................. 709
27 Hollow Cathodes and Plasma Jets for Thin Film
Deposition ............................................... 715
Zdeněk Hubička
27.1 Introduction ............................................. 715
27.2 Direct Current (DC) Hollow Cathode Discharge ............. 715
27.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Hollow Cathode Discharge ............. 720
27.4 RF and DC Hollow Cathode Plasma Jet Systems for
Low-Pressure PVD of Thin Films ........................... 722
27.5 DC and RF Hollow Cathode Characterization During PVD of
Thin Films ............................................... 728
27.6 Multiplasma Jet System for Coatings of Higher Surfaces
and Deposition of Alloys ................................. 730
27.7 Deposition of ferroelectric thin films by RF-modulated
plasma jet systems ....................................... 733
27.8 Summary .................................................. 735
27.9 References ............................................... 735
28 Low-Temperature Plasmas for Polymer Surface
Modification ............................................. 739
Jürgen Meichsner
28.1 Introduction ............................................. 739
28.2 Low-Temperature Plasma and Plasma-Polymer Interaction .... 739
28.2.1 Characterization of Low-Pressure Electric Gas
Discharges ........................................ 739
28.2.2 Plasma Species and Expected Effects in Polymer
Surface treatment ................................. 744
28.2.3 Methods for Characterization of Plasma-Treated
Polymers .......................................... 746
28.2.4 Polymer Samples and Thin Film Preparation ......... 748
28.3 Plasma Modification of Polyethylene and Polystyrene ...... 749
28.4 Plasma Modification of Wool and Cellulose Fabrics ........ 752
28.5 Summary .................................................. 755
28.6 References ............................................... 756
29 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Superhard Thin Films ....... 757
Achim Lunk
29.1 Characterization of Superhard Materials .................. 757
29.2 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Diamond and Diamond-Like
Carbon ................................................... 759
29.2.1 Deposition of Diamond ............................. 760
29.2.2 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Diamond-Like
Carbon ............................................ 765
29.3 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Cubic Boron Nitride
Films .................................................... 766
29.3.1 Physical Vapor Deposition ......................... 769
29.3.1.1 lon-Bearn Assisted Deposition (IBAD) ..... 769
29.3.1.2 Plasma-Activated Reactive Evaporation
(PARE) ................................... 770
29.3.1.3 Reactive Sputtering for c-BN Deposition
(RST) .................................... 773
29.3.1.4 Plasma-Enhanced Laser Deposition ......... 776
29.3.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition ......... 779
29.3.2.1 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor
Deposition in Radiofrequency (rf)
Discharges ............................... 780
29.3.2.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor
Deposition in ECR Discharges ............. 781
29.3.2.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor
Deposition by Direct Current (dc)
Plasma jet ............................... 782
29.4 References ............................................... 782
30 Applications of Dusty Plasmas ............................ 787
Rainer Hippler and Holger Kersten
30.1 Introduction ............................................. 787
30.2 Particle Synthesis in Acetylene Plasmas .................. 788
30.3 Coating of Powder Particles in a Combined
Radiofrequency/Magnetron Discharge ....................... 792
30.4 Deposition of Protective Coatings onto Phosphore
Particles ................................................ 794
30.5 Formation and Deposition of Nanosize Clusters on
Surfaces ................................................. 796
30.6 References ............................................... 800
31 Plasma-Assisted Surface Modification of Biointerfaces .... 803
Andreas Ohl and Karsten Schröder
31.1 Introduction ............................................. 803
31.2 Plasma Surface Fuctionalization for Cell Adhesion
Improvement .............................................. 806
31.3 Plasma-Induced Surface Grafting of Biomolecules .......... 810
31.4 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapour Deposition for Coating
of Biomedical Devices .................................... 813
31.4.1 Functional Plasma Polymer Coatings ................ 813
31.4.2 Plasma-Assisted Bioceramic Coating ................ 816
31.5 Conclusions .............................................. 817
31.6 References ............................................... 817
32 Cold-Plasma-Based Sterilization .......................... 821
Mounir Laroussi
32.1 Introduction ............................................. 821
32.2 Low-Pressure Studies ..................................... 822
32.3 Cold Plasma Sources Used in Plasma-Based Sterilization ... 823
32.3.1 The Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) ............ 823
32.3.2 The Atmospheric Pressure Plasma jet (APPJ)) ....... 824
32.3.3 The Plasma Pencil ................................. 825
32.4 Kinetics of In activation and Inactivation Agents ........ 826
32.4.1 Kinetics .......................................... 826
32.4.2 Inactivation Agents ............................... 829
32.4.2.1 Heat ..................................... 829
32.4.2.2 Charged Particles ........................ 830
32.4.2.3 Ultraviolet Radiation .................... 830
32.4.2.4 Reactive Neutral Species ................. 831
32.5 Inactivation of Biofilms ................................. 833
32.6 Conclusions and Prospects ................................ 834
32.7 References ............................................... 835
33 Atmospheric Plasma: A Universal Tool for Physicians? ..... 837
Eva Stoffels
33.1 Background ............................................... 837
33.2 How to Obtain? (Methods of Generation) ................... 839
33.3 How to Apply? (Various Effects on Living Subjects) ....... 844
33.3.1 Lethal Effects .................................... 844
33.3.2 Sublethal Effects ................................. 849
33.3.2.1 Cell Detachment .......................... 855
33.3.2.2 Apoptosis ................................ 858
33.3.3 Comparison with Common Means ...................... 861
33.4 Concluding Remarks ....................................... 862
33.5 References ............................................... 862
34 Markets for Plasma Technology ............................ 865
Klaus-Dieter Weltmann, Martin Schmidt, and Kurt Becker
34.1 Introduction ............................................. 865
34.2 Market Situation in Selected Areas ....................... 866
34.2.1 Plasma Light Sources .............................. 866
34.2.2 Environmental Applications ........................ 867
34.2.3 Energy Generation and Energy Saving ............... 869
34.2.4 Surface Treatment Technology ...................... 870
34.2.5 Information Technology ............................ 870
34.2.5.1 Chip Production .......................... 871
34.2.5.2 Optical Storage Media .................... 871
34.2.5.3 Flat Panel Displays ...................... 871
34.2.6 Mechanical Engineering ............................ 872
34.2.7 Medical Technique, Biotechnology, and Pharmacy .... 873
34.2.8 Textile Industry .................................. 873
34.2.9 Thrusters ......................................... 874
34.3 New Markets .............................................. 874
34.4 Conclusions .............................................. 877
34.5 References ............................................... 878
Index .................................................... 881
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