Technical Reports Series. N 462 (Vienna, 2008). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаManaging low radioactivity material from the decommissioning of nuclear facilities. - Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2008. - 201 p. - (Technical reports series; N 462). - ISBN ISSN 0074-1914; ISBN 978-92-0-109907-5
 

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Оглавление / Contents
 
SUMMARY ......................................................... 1

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................. 3
   1.1. Background .............................................. 3
   1.2. Objective ............................................... 5
   1.3. Scope ................................................... 5

2. MATERIALS ARISING IN LARGE QUANTITIES DURING
   DECOMMISSIONING .............................................. 6
   2.1. Overview ................................................ 6
   2.2. Range of decommissioning materials and wastes ........... 7
   2.3. Typical materials arising in the decommissioning of
        specific nuclear facilities ............................. 8
        2.3.1. Refining and conversion .......................... 8
        2.3.2. Enrichment ....................................... 9
        2.3.3. Fuel fabrication ................................. 9
        2.3.4. Nuclear power plants ............................ 10
        2.3.5. Spent fuel reprocessing ......................... 13
        2.3.6. Research, institutional and industrial
               facilities ...................................... 14

3. STRATEGIES FOR THE DISPOSITION OF LARGE AMOUNTS
   OF DECOMMISSIONING MATERIALS ................................ 15
   3.1. General considerations ................................. 15
   3.2. Potential approaches for the disposition of
        decommissioning materials/waste ........................ 17
   3.3. Unconditionally released materials for recycling or
        reuse .................................................. 19
   3.4. Unconditionally released materials for disposal ........ 20
   3.5. Radioactive material for conditional recycling/reuse
        within the non-nuclear industry ........................ 21
   3.6. Radioactive material for conditional recycling/reuse
        within the nuclear industry ............................ 22
   3.7. LLW disposed of in a dedicated repository or storage
        facility ............................................... 24
   3.8. VLLW disposed of in an appropriate storage or
        disposal facility ...................................... 26

4. FACTORS AND CONSTRAINTS INFLUENCING OPTIONS FOR THE
   DISPOSITION OF MATERIALS IN DECOMMISSIONING ................. 29
   4.1. Quantities of materials ................................ 30
   4.2. Technical feasibility and availability of technology ... 31
        4.2.1. Infrastructure .................................. 31
        4.2.2. Transportation .................................. 32
        4.2.3. Characteristics of radiological contamination ... 32
        4.2.4. Dilution with radiologically clean materials .... 33
        4.2.5. Melting ......................................... 34
        4.2.6. Chemical toxicity of radioactive materials ...... 36
   4.3. Cost and economics ..................................... 37
   4.4. Radiological factors and the application of clearance
        levels ................................................. 39
   4.5. National policy, public acceptance and legal
        liability .............................................. 40
        4.5.1. National policy ................................. 40
        4.5.2. Public acceptance ............................... 41
        4.5.3. Legal liability ................................. 43
   4.6. Final status of decommissioning activities ............. 44
        4.6.1. Site end state .................................. 44
        4.6.2. Disposal options: Availability and
               limitations ..................................... 44
        4.6.3. Storage options: Availability and limitations ... 44
   4.7. Hazards and risks to people and the environment ........ 45
   4.8. QA and documentation ................................... 46
   4.9. Environmental and ethical issues ....................... 47
        4.9.1. Sustainability .................................. 47
        4.9.2. Global optimization: Full cycle impact .......... 48
   4.10.Methodology for decision making for selecting
        disposition options based on specific influencing
        factors ................................................ 49

5. METHODOLOGIES TO EVALUATE AND CHARACTERIZE MATERIALS
   AND WASTES FOR DISPOSITION .................................. 51
   5.1. Facility/site characterization ......................... 53
        5.1.1. Historical information .......................... 53
        5.1.2. Calculation methods ............................. 54
        5.1.3. Characterization of the survey plan ............. 55
        5.1.4. In situ measurements ............................ 55
        5.1.5. Sampling and analysis ........................... 57
        5.1.6. Data evaluation and verification ................ 59
   5.2. Material management strategy ........................... 59
   5.3. Monitoring strategy .................................... 62
        5.3.1. Scaling factors (vectors) ....................... 63
        5.3.2. Conversion of regulatory criteria into
               in-field or laboratory measurement .............. 65
        5.3.3. Main factors affecting measurement
               methodology ..................................... 65
               5.3.3.1. Type of material and its
                        physicochemical composition ............ 66
               5.3.3.2. Geometry of the material and
                        accessibility to remaining
                        contamination .......................... 66
               5.3.3.3. Surface condition ...................... 66
               5.3.3.4. Type of contamination .................. 67
               5.3.3.5. Homogeneity versus inhomogeneity of
                        contamination .......................... 67
               5.3.3.6. Averaging in monitoring procedures ..... 67
               5.3.3.7. Background level of radiation .......... 68
               5.3.3.8. Efficiency determination ............... 68
        5.3.4. Measurement uncertainties and their
               acceptability ................................... 69
        5.3.5. Determination of the detection limit ............ 71
   5.4. Review of typical monitoring methodologies ............. 71
        5.4.1. Direct measurements ............................. 72
        5.4.2. Indirect measurements ........................... 76
        5.4.3. Factors influencing the quality of monitoring
               methodologies ................................... 77

6. CONCLUSIONS ................................................. 79

REFERENCES ..................................................... 81

ANNEX I:    NATIONAL AND PROJECT CASE STUDIES .................. 89
ANNEX II:   LESSONS LEARNED ................................... 187

GLOSSARY ...................................................... 197

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW ........................... 201


 
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