Foreword ...................................................... vii
List of abbreviations .......................................... ix
1 Introduction ................................................ 1
2 Materials .................................................. 6
2.1 Modification of polymers by radiation ...................... 6
2.1.1 Overview ............................................ 6
2.1.2 X-Ray ............................................... 7
2.1.3 Ion beam implantation ............................... 8
2.1.4 Photolocking ....................................... 14
2.1.5 DUV radiation ...................................... 15
2.2 Smart materials ........................................... 23
2.2.1 Shape memory materials ............................. 24
2.2.2 Smart fluids ....................................... 25
2.2.3 Magnetostrictive materials ......................... 27
2.2.4 Electrostrictive materials ......................... 27
2.2.5 Chromogenic materials .............................. 28
2.2.6 Smart polymers ..................................... 30
2.2.7 Quantum dots (QD) .................................. 33
2.2.8 ZnO nanowires ...................................... 34
Conclusion ................................................ 34
3 Photonics ................................................. 35
3.1 Wave guiding basics ....................................... 35
3.2 Characterization of optical waveguide-based devices .......
3.3 Types of waveguides ....................................... 47
3.4 Types of optical fibers ................................... 50
3.5 Fabrication methods for optical waveguides ................ 52
3.5.1 Lithography ........................................ 53
3.5.2 Replication ........................................ 54
3.5.3 Dry and wet etching ................................ 62
3.6 Planar waveguide-based devices ............................ 63
3.6.1 All polymer waveguides ............................. 63
3.6.2 Silicon-polymer hybrid waveguides .................. 70
3.7 Active photonic devices ................................... 77
3.7.1 Light-emitting diodes .............................. 77
3.7.2 Detectors .......................................... 79
3.7.3 Image sensors ...................................... 87
3.7.4 Semiconductor lasers ............................... 90
3.7.5 Organic LEDs, organic PDs and organic lasers ....... 92
3.8 Conclusion ............................................... 104
4 Fluidics and fluid control systems ....................... 106
4.1 Valve basics ............................................. 106
4.2 Introduction into fluidic mechanics ...................... 108
4.3 Theory of fluid control elements in systems .............. 112
4.4 Introduction into control theory ......................... 114
4.4.1 Open-loop and closed-loop control ................. 114
4.4.2 The control loop .................................. 118
4.4.3 Adapting the controller to the controlled system .. 136
4.4.4 Rating and selection of control valves ............ 145
4.5 Microvalves .............................................. 155
4.6 Fabrication of fluidic channels: Bonding ................. 163
4.7 Conclusion ............................................... 165
5 Biology .................................................. 166
5.1 Cell types ............................................... 167
5.1.1 Helix aspersa cultures ............................ 167
5.1.2 Primary rat central nervous system cultures ....... 168
5.2 Patterning of living cells ............................... 170
5.2.1 Fibroblast patterning by DUV lithography .......... 171
5.2.2 Neural cell patterning by DUV lithography ......... 172
5.2.3 Microcontact printing (μCP) ....................... 178
5.2.4 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) printing .... 181
5.3 Conclusion ............................................... 183
6 Sensors for Optofluidic systems .......................... 184
6.1 Process analytical sensors ............................... 184
6.1.1 Temperature sensors ............................... 185
6.1.2 Pressure sensors .................................. 189
6.1.3 Flow sensors ...................................... 190
6.1.4 Level sensors ..................................... 194
6.1.5 Conductivity sensors .............................. 197
6.1.6 pH Sensors ........................................ 199
6.1.7 Oxydo-reduction potential (ORP) sensors ........... 199
6.1.8 Oxygen sensors .................................... 199
6.2 Spectroscopy ............................................. 202
6.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 202
6.2.2 Diffraction gratings .............................. 203
6.2.3 Miniature spectrometers ........................... 203
6.2.4 MEMS-based spectrometers .......................... 208
6.2.5 UV-VIS spectroscopy ............................... 214
6.2.6 Infrared spectroscopy ............................. 223
6.2.7 Raman spectroscopy ................................ 224
6.3 Chemometrics ............................................. 225
6.4 Conclusion ............................................... 232
7 Optofluidic system technology ............................ 233
7.1 Bus technologies for Optofluidic systems ................. 234
7.2 Optofluidic systems ...................................... 240
7.3 Conclusion ............................................... 261
8 Outlook .................................................. 263
9 Glossary of Optofluidics terms and definitions ........... 264
10 Chemical resistance properties of materials .............. 284
International standards and regulations ....................... 313
Fotography .................................................... 326
Index ......................................................... 339
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