Carbon in Earth / ed. by R.M.Hazen, A.P.Jones, J.A.Baross. - Chantilly: Miner. soc. of America; [St. Louis]: Geochem. soc., 2013. - xv, 698 p.: ill. - (Reviews in mineralogy and geochemistry; vol.75.). - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.677-698. - ISBN 978-0-939950-90-4; ISSN 1529-6466  Место хранения:   09 | Институт геохимии им. А.П.Виноградова СО РАН | Иркутск | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

1 Why Deep Carbon? Robert M. Hazen, Craig M. Schiffries FRONTIERS OF DEEP CARBON RESEARCH ............................... 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................. 5 REFERENCES ...................................................... 5 2 Carbon Mineralogy and Crystal Chemistry Robert M. Hazen, Robert T. Downs, Adrian P. Jones, Linda Kah INTRODUCTION .................................................... 7 SYSTEMATIC CARBON MINERALOGY .................................... 8 Carbon allotropes ............................................ 8 Carbides .................................................... 13 Rhombohedral carbonates ..................................... 19 The aragonite group ......................................... 27 Other anhydrous carbonates .................................. 28 Hydrous carbonates .......................................... 31 Minerals incorporating organic molecules .................... 32 Mineral-molecule interactions ............................... 34 CONCLUSIONS: UNRESOLVED QUESTIONS IN CARBON MINERALOGY ......... 35 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................ 35 REFERENCES ..................................................... 36 3 Structure, Bonding, and Mineralogy of Carbon at Extreme Conditions Artem R. Oganov, Russell J. Hemley, Robert M. Hazen, Adrian P. Jones INTRODUCTION ................................................... 47 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ..................................... 48 ELEMENTAL CARBON ............................................... 49 Stable phases ............................................... 49 Metastable phases ........................................... 52 Fullerenes at pressure ...................................... 54 Ultrahigh-pressure phases ................................... 55 CARBIDES ....................................................... 55 MOLECULAR FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES ................................. 57 Carbon dioxide .............................................. 57 Other compounds ............................................. gj CARBONATES ..................................................... 63 Behavior of sp2 carbonates .................................. 63 High-pressure sp3 carbonates ................................ 64 Silicate carbonates ......................................... 66 CONCLUSIONS .................................................... 68 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................ 70 REFERENCES ..................................................... 70 4 Carbon Mineral Evolution Robert M. Hazen, Robert T. Downs, Linda Kah, Dimitri Sverjensky INTRODUCTION ................................................... 79 STAGES OF CARBON MINERAL EVOLUTION ............................. 80 The era of Earth's accretion ................................ 81 The era of crust and mantle processing ...................... 83 The era of the evolving biosphere ........................... 86 CONCLUSIONS: UNRESOLVED QUESTIONS IN CARBON MINERAL EVOLUTION ................................................... 96 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................ 97 REFERENCES ..................................................... 97 CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................ 138 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 138 REFERENCES .................................................... 138 5 The Chemistry of Carbon in Aqueous Fluids at Crustal and Upper-Mantle Conditions: Experimental and Theoretical Constraints Craig E. Manning, Everett L. Shock, Dimitri A. Sverjensky INTRODUCTION .................................................. 109 Carbon in aqueous fluids of crust and mantle 1 до Sources of carbon in aqueous fluids of the crust and mantle ..................................................... 110 OXIDIZED CARBON IN AQUEOUS FLUIDS AT HIGH P AND T ............. 112 Aqueous fluids at high P and T ............................. 113 COrH20 mixing and miscibility .............................. 123 REDUCED CARBON IN AQUEOUS FLUIDS AT HIGH P AND T .............. 128 CH4 and CO solubility in H2O ............................... 128 Kinetic inhibition of CH4 formation ........................ 129 Reduced carbon and aqueous fluids at high P and T .......... 131 6 Primordial Origins of Earth's Carbon Bernard Marty, Conel M.O'D. Alexander, Sean N. Raymond INTRODUCTION .................................................. 149 CARBON IN THE UNIVERSE ........................................ 150 Nucleosynthesis of carbon and stellar evolution ............ 150 Galactic chemical evolution ................................ 152 Carbon in the interstellar medium and the presolar molecular cloud ............................................ 152 Carbon content and isotopic composition of the solar nebula ..................................................... 152 Volatile abundances and isotope compositions in comets with special reference to carbon ........................... 154 Interplanetary dust particles .............................. 155 Meteorites ................................................. 150 The organic matter in chondrites—relationship to IDPs, comets, and ISM ............................................ 158 THE SOLAR SYSTEM: DYNAMICS .................................... 159 CLUES TO THE ORIGIN OF CARBON ON EARTH ........................ 165 Terrestrial carbon inventory ............................... 165 Volatile (C-H-N-noble gas) elemental and isotopic constraints ................................................ 168 Inferences on the nature of Earth's building blocks ........ 169 Is cosmic dust a major source of terrestrial volatiles? .... 170 CARBON TRAPPING IN EARTH ...................................... 172 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................. 173 REFERENCES .................................................... 173 7 Ingassing, Storage, and Outgassing of Terrestrial Carbon through Geologic Time Rajdeep Dasgupta INTRODUCTION .................................................. 183 CARBON INHERITANCE — MAGMA OCEAN CARBON CYCLE ................. 184 Magma ocean carbon cycle during core formation ............. 184 Magma ocean carbon cycle after core formation .............. 191 CARBON RETENTION: MODULATING MANTLE CARBON BUDGET THROUGH THE WILSON CYCLE .............................................. 200 Carbon cycle in an ancient Earth with greater thermal vigor: an era of more efficient outgassing? ................ 201 Inefficient subduction of carbon in the Archean and Proterozoic? ............................................... 203 Carbon ingassing in modern Earth ........................... 209 Stable forms of carbon in the modern mantle and carbon outgassing ................................................. 214 CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................ 219 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 220 REFERENCES .................................................... 220 8 Carbon in the Core: Its Influence on the Properties of Core and Mantle Bernard J. Wood, Jie Li, Anat Shahar INTRODUCTION .................................................. 231 CARBON ISOTOPES AND CARBON CONTENT OF THE CORE ................ 233 DENSITY AND PHASE DIAGRAM CONSTRAINTS ON THE CARBON CONTENT OF THE CORE ........................................ 238 The Fe-C phase diagram ..................................... 238 Densities of iron carbides ................................. 239 Sound velocities of Fe, Fe3C and those of the inner core ... 241 CARBON IN THE CORE AND SIDEROPHILE ELEMENTS IN THE MANTLE ..... 243 CONCLUSIONS ................................................... 245 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 247 REFERENCES .................................................... 247 9 Carbon in Silicate Melts Huaiwei Ni, Hans Keppler INTRODUCTION .................................................. 251 CARBON SOLUBILITY IN SILICATE MELTS ........................... 251 CO: solubility in nominally anhydrous melts ................ 252 CO2 solubility in hydrous melts ............................ 259 Solubility of C-O-H fluids under reduced conditions ........ 263 CARBON SPECIATION IN SILICATE MELTS ........................... 266 Spectroscopic information on speciation .................... 266 Carbon speciation in silicate glasses ...................... 270 Equilibrium carbon speciation in silicate melts ............ 274 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON-BEARING SILICATE MELTS ....... 277 Viscosity and electrical conductivity ...................... 277 Density and molar volume ................................... 280 Diffusivity of carbon ...................................... 280 FUTURE DIRECTIONS ............................................. 282 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 282 REFERENCES .................................................... 283 10 Carbonate Melts and Carbonatites Adrian P. Jones, Matthew Genge Laura Carmody INTRODUCTION .................................................. 289 CARBONATE MELTS ............................................... 291 Physical properties ........................................ 291 Atomic structure of carbonate melts ........................ 292 Carbonate melts as ionic liquids ........................... 292 Cation electronegativity (χ) ............................... 292 Speciation ................................................. 294 Carbonate glasses .......................................... 295 Atomic simulation of carbonates ............................ 296 CARBONATITES .................................................. 296 Occurrence of carbonatites ................................. 298 Geochemistry of carbonatites ............................... 301 Carbonatite mineral deposits ............................... 304 Isotopic signatures of carbonatites ........................ 305 GENESIS OF CARBONATITE MAGMAS ................................. 308 Carbonate melt metasomatism ................................ 309 Carbonate melt crystallization of diamond .................. 310 Magmas related to carbonate melts .......................... 310 FUTURE RESEARCH ............................................... 311 Carbonatites at high-pressure .............................. 311 Melt structure of tetracarbonates? ......................... 312 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 312 REFERENCES .................................................... 312 11 Deep Carbon Emissions from Volcanoes Michael R. Burton, Georgina M. Sawyer, Domenico Granieri INTRODUCTION: VOLCANIC CO2 EMISSIONS IN THE GEOLOGICAL CARBON CYCLE .................................................. 323 Carbon species in Earth degassing .......................... 325 METHODS FOR MEASURING GEOLOGICAL C02 EFFLUX ................... 325 Ground-based measurements of volcanic plumes ............... 325 Volcanic SO2 flux measurements ............................. 327 Airborne measurements of volcanic plumes ................... 328 Space-based measurements of volcanic plumes ................ 329 Ground-based measurements of diffuse deep CO2 .............. 329 Diffusive degassing of deep CO2 in tectonically active areas ...................................................... 330 Submarine measurements ..................................... 331 REPORTED MEASUREMENTS OF DEEP CARBON FLUXES ................... 332 Subaerial volcanism ........................................ 332 Submarine volcanism ........................................ 340 INVENTORIES OF GLOBAL VOLCANIC DEEP CARBON FLUX: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE GEOLOGICAL CARBON CYCLE .................. 340 Estimates of global deep carbon emission rates ............. 340 Comparison with previous estimates of subaerial volcanic CO2 flux ................................................... 342 Balancing CO2 emission rates with weathering and subduction rates ........................................... 342 THE ROLE OF DEEP CARBON IN VOLCANIC ACTIVITY .................. 343 Original CO2 contents of magma ............................. 343 Importance of a deep exsolved volatile phase on magma dynamics and eruptive style ................................ 344 MAGNITUDE OF ERUPTIVE DEEP CARBON EMISSIONS ................... 344 SUMMARY ....................................................... 345 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 346 REFERENCES .................................................... 346 12 Diamonds and the Geology of Mantle Carbon Steven B. Shirey, Pierre Cartigny, Daniel J. Frost, Shantanu Keshav, Fabrizio Nestola, Paolo Nimis, D. Graham Pearson, Nikolai V. Sobolev, Michael J. Walter INTRODUCTION TO DIAMOND CHARACTERISTICS ....................... 355 Introduction ............................................... 355 Microscale components in diamonds .......................... 361 Internal textures in diamonds .............................. 368 DIAMOND FORMATION ............................................. 369 Experimental and thermodynamic constraints of growth in the lithospheric mantle ................................. 369 Experimental and thermodynamic constraints of growth in the sub-lithospheric mantle ............................. 375 Stable isotopic compositions and the formation of diamonds ................................................... 376 INCLUSIONS HOSTED IN DIAMONDS ................................. 382 Thermobarometry ............................................ 382 Geochemistry and age ....................................... 386 GEOLOGY OF MANTLE CARBON FROM DIAMONDS ..................... 396 Geodynamics, carbon mobility and reservoirs ................ 396 OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS AND FUTURE WORK ......................... 406 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 406 REFERENCES .................................................... 406 13 Nanoprobes for Deep Carbon Wendy L. Mao, Eglantine Boulard INTRODUCTION .................................................. 423 SYNTHESIZING SAMPLES AT HIGH PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES ....... 423 High pressure .............................................. 424 High temperature ........................................... 424 Spatial resolution ......................................... 425 EX SITU TECHNIQUES ............................................ 426 Sample preparation: FIB-SEM ................................ 426 Characterization tools ..................................... 428 IN SITU TECHNIQUES ............................................ 435 Nanoscale X-ray diffraction ................................ 436 X-ray Raman spectroscopy ................................... 438 X-ray imaging .............................................. 440 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK ....................................... 444 REFERENCES .................................................... 445 14 On the Origins of Deep Hydrocarbons Mark A. Sephton, Robert M. Hazen INTRODUCTION .................................................. 449 BIOGENIC ORIGINS OF DEEP HYDROCARBONS ......................... 449 Types of hydrocarbons ...................................... 449 Diagenesis and kerogen formation ........................... 450 ABIOTIC ORIGINS OF DEEP HYDROCARBONS .......................... 451 Deep gas theories .......................................... 451 Thomas Gold and the "Deep Hot Biosphere" ................... 451 Evidence for abiotic hydrocarbon synthesis ................. 452 DETERMINING SOURCE - CHEMICAL EVIDENCE ........................ 454 Pyrolysis experiments ...................................... 454 Molecular biomarkers ....................................... 455 DETERMINING SOURCE - GEOLOGIC EVIDENCE ........................ 457 Association with temperature and source rocks .............. 457 SELECTED CASE STUDIES ......................................... 458 Mountsorrel, United Kingdom ................................ 458 The Songliao Basin, China .................................. 459 CONCLUSIONS: UNRESOLVED QUESTIONS IN THE ORIGINS OF DEEP HYDROCARBONS .................................................. 459 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 460 REFERENCES .................................................... 460 15 Laboratory Simulations of Abiotic Hydrocarbon Formation in Earth's Deep Subsurface Thomas M. McCollom INTRODUCTION .................................................. 467 ABIOTIC HYDROCARBONS IN EARTH'S UPPER MANTLE .................. 468 The chemical and physical environment of Earth's upper mantle ..................................................... 468 Experimental studies of hydrocarbons at mantle conditions .. 468 Implications for mantle sources of hydrocarbons ............ 473 ABIOTIC HYDROCARBON FORMATION IN CRUSTAL ENVIRONMENTS ......... 474 Chemical and physical environments for hydrocarbon formation in the crust ..................................... 474 Fischer-Tropsch-type synthesis ............................. 476 Alternative pathways for hydrocarbon formation in the crust ...................................................... 487 SOME DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES ............................ 490 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 490 REFERENCES .................................................... 490 16 Hydrocarbon Behavior at Nanoscale Interfaces David R. Cole, Salim Ok, Alberto Striolo, Anh Phan INTRODUCTION .................................................. 495 Probing C-O-H behavior with neutron scattering and NMR ..... 498 NON-AQUEOUS FLUID ADSORPTION BEHAVIOR: EXPERIMENTAL ........... 499 Background on adsorption concepts and approaches ........... 499 C-O-H pore fluid densities ................................. 501 Hydrocarbon-interfacial microstructure ..................... 503 NON-AQUEOUS FLUID DYNAMICS AT INTERFACES: EXPERIMENTAL ........ 506 QENS probe of hydrocarbons in nanopores .................... 506 NMR probes of hydrocarbons in nanopores .................... 509 Representative NMR studies ................................. 511 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR-LEVEL SIMULATIONS ........................ 515 Properties of confined fluids: do they differ compared to the bulk? .................................................. 515 Selected simulations of alkanes within alumina and silica-based pores ......................................... 525 Simulation details ......................................... 531 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 534 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 535 REFERENCES .................................................... 536 17 Nature and Extent of the Deep Biosphere Frederick S. Colwell, Steven D'Hondt INTRODUCTION .................................................. 547 EARLY STUDIES AND COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS ....................... 547 WHERE WE ARE NOW - THE TERROIR OF SUBSURFACE LIFE ............. 548 THE TOOLS THAT WE NEED ........................................ 550 THERE'S NO PLACE LIKE HOME .................................... 553 IS DIVERSITY THE SPICE OF SUBSURFACE LIFE? .................... 555 BIOMASS OF SUBSURFACE LIFE .................................... 557 PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF SUBSURFACE LIFE .................... 558 WHERE AND WHEN DOES LIFE IN THE SUBSURFACE REALLY MATTER TO US? ........................................................ 560 PROJECTIONS AND PRIORITIES FOR FUTURE STUDIES ................. 562 Imagining how we might sample and visualize deep life ...... 563 Unexplored adaptations of subsurface microbes .............. 563 Unstudied physiologies and genotypes for the subsurface .... 564 Subsurface coupling of the living and the non-living ....... 565 SUMMARY .................................................... 566 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 566 REFERENCES .................................................... 566 18 Serpentinization, Carbon, and Deep Life Matthew O. Schrenk, William J. Brazelton, Susan Q. Lang INTRODUCTION .................................................. 575 THE PROCESS OF SERPENTINIZATION ............................... 575 Physical and chemical consequences of serpentinization ..... 575 Types of serpentinizing habitats ........................... 577 BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SERPENTINIZATION ................... 583 Metabolic strategies in serpentinite-hosted ecosystems ..... 583 Challenges of high pH ...................................... 591 Limitations to carbon fixation ............................. 591 Sources of nutrients ....................................... 593 Microbe-mineral interactions ............................... 594 Serpentinization and the origins of life ................... 594 WHERE DOES THE ABIOTIC CARBON CYCLE END AND ВIOGEOCHEMISTRY BEGIN? ........................................................ 597 Abiogenesis in thermodynamic and experimental studies ...... 597 Distinguishing biotic from abiotic processes ............... 598 Linking abiotic and biological processes ................... 599 COMMON THEMES AND UNCHARTED TERRITORY ......................... 600 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 601 REFERENCES .................................................... 601 19 High-Pressure Biochemistry and Biophysics Filip Meersman, Isabelle Daniel, Douglas H. Bartlett, Roland Winter Rachael Hazael, Paul F. McMillan INTRODUCTION .................................................. 607 PROTEINS AND POLYPEPTIDES ..................................... 608 Structures of proteins and polypeptides .................... 608 Thermodynamic considerations: volume versus compressibility arguments .................................. 609 The protein volume paradox ................................. 610 Mechanistic aspects of pressure-induced protein unfolding .. 611 Pressure effects on multimeric proteins and aggregates ..... 612 Pressure effects on protein energy landscapes .............. 613 From free energy landscapes to P-T phase diagrams .......... 616 Kinetic aspects of the phase diagram ....................... 619 Relevance of biophysical studies on proteins to deep carbon ..................................................... 620 NUCLEIC ACIDS ................................................. 620 LIPIDS AND CELL MEMBRANES ..................................... 622 Lamellar lipid bilayer phases .............................. 622 Lipid mixtures, cholesterol, and peptides .................. 626 Nonlamellar lipid phases ................................... 628 Biological and reconstituted membranes ..................... 630 Relevance of lipid biophysics for deep carbon .............. 631 HIGH-PRESSURE MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES ............. 632 Who's down there? .......................................... 632 Genomic attributes at depth ................................ 634 Metabolism: organic matter, energy and nutrients ........... 636 ACQUISITION OF RESISTANCE TO GIGAPASCAL PRESSURES ............. 637 Exploring extreme pressure limits for life ................. 637 Acquisition of gigapascal pressure resistance by higher organisms .................................................. 638 Resistance to extreme shock pressures ...................... 639 CONCLUSIONS ................................................... 640 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 640 REFERENCES .................................................... 640 Genetic diversity .......................................... 654 VIRAL IMPACTS ON HOST ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION ................... 654 Bottom-up effects: the biogeochemical impact ............... 655 Top-down effects: altering population structure ............ 655 Viral manipulation of genetic content and expression ....... 657 VIRAL MANIPULATION OF THE DEEP SUBSURFACE BIOSPHERE ........... 658 Hydrologically active regions of the subsurface ............ 658 Deeply buried sediments .................................... 660 Viral impacts on surface-attached communities .............. 661 Tools for analysis: viral metagenomics in the deep subsurface ................................................. 662 VENTS, VIRUSES AND THE ORIGIN OF LIFE ......................... 666 Hydrothermal vents and the deep subsurface: key settings in the origin of life ...................................... 666 The viral role in the origin of life ....................... 667 CONCLUSION .................................................... 669 REFERENCES .................................................... 670 20 The Deep Viriosphere: Assessing the Viral Impact on Microbial Community Dynamics in the Deep Subsurface Rika E. Anderson, William J. Brazelton, John A. Baross INTRODUCTION .................................................. 649 DIVERSITY IN THE VIRAL WORLD .................................. 650 Viral life cycles .......................................... 650 Viral sizes and morphologies ............................... 652 Genetic diversity .......................................... 654 VIRAL IMPACTS ON HOST ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION ................... 654 Bottom-up effects: the biogeochemical impact ............... 655 Top-down effects: altering population structure ............ 655 Viral manipulation of genetic content and expression ....... 657 VIRAL MANIPULATION OF THE DEEP SUBSURFACE BIOSPHERE ........... 658 Hydrologically active regions of the subsurface ............ 658 Deeply buried sediments .................................... 660 Viral impacts on surface-attached communities .............. 661 Tools for analysis: viral metagenomics in the deep subsurface ................................................. 662 VENTS, VIRUSES AND THE ORIGIN OF LIFE ......................... 666 Hydrothermal vents and the deep subsurface: key settings in the origin of life ...................................... 666 The viral role in the origin of life ....................... 667 CONCLUSION .................................................... 669 REFERENCES .................................................... 670