Preface to the second edition .................................. ix
Preface to the first edition ................................... xi
Abbreviations ................................................. xiv
1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 What is a wetland? ...................................... 1
1.2 Wetland classification .................................. 6
1.3 Wetland inventories ..................................... 9
1.4 Summary ................................................ 11
1.5 Practical experiments and observations ................. 11
1.5.1 Wetland classification ........................... 12
2 Water and Soil .............................................. 13
2.1 Physical and chemical properties of water .............. 14
2.2 Wetland hydrology ...................................... 22
2.3 Secondary gradients .................................... 31
2.4 Hydric soils ........................................... 33
2.4.1 Soil genesis .................................... 33
2.5 Summary ................................................ 41
2.6 Practical experiments and observations ................. 42
2.6.1 Water levels .................................... 42
2.6.2 Water chemistry ................................. 43
2.6.3 Temperature and oxygen gradients ................ 43
2.6.4 Redox ........................................... 43
2.6.5 Hydric soils .................................... 44
3 Microorganisms and Invertebrates ............................ 45
3.1 Microorganisms ......................................... 46
3.1.1 Bacteria ........................................ 47
3.1.2 Fungi ........................................... 49
3.1.3 Algae ........................................... 51
3.2 Invertebrates .......................................... 55
3.2.1 Aquatic insects .................................. 56
3.3 Summary ................................................ 65
3.4 Practical experiments and observations ................. 65
3.4.1 Wetland algae ................................... 65
3.4.2 Wetland invertebrates ........................... 66
4 Wetland Plants and Animals .................................. 69
4.1 Wetland plants ......................................... 71
4.1.1 Internal gas-space continuum .................... 77
4.1.2 Heterophylly .................................... 84
4.1.3 Clonal growth ................................... 87
4.2 Birds .................................................. 89
4.3 Fish ................................................... 94
4.4 Amphibians, reptiles, and mammals ...................... 98
4.5 Summary ............................................... 103
4.6 Practical experiments and observations ................ 103
4.6.1 Macrophyte adaptations ......................... 103
4.6.2 Seed banks ..................................... 104
4.6.3 Wetland birds .................................. 105
4.6.4 Wetland fish ................................... 105
5 Spatial and Temporal Patterns .............................. 106
5.1 Coenoclines ........................................... 106
5.2 Spatial patterns ...................................... 110
5.2.1 Coenocline development ......................... 113
5.2.2 Fire ........................................... 119
5.3 Temporal patterns ..................................... 119
5.3.1 Macro-succession ............................... 119
5.3.2 Micro-succession ............................... 122
5.3.3 Micro-succession versus fluctuations ........... 126
5.4 Development of wetland landscapes ..................... 128
5.5 Summary ............................................... 131
5.6 Practical experiments and observations ................ 133
5.6.1 Gradient analysis .............................. 133
5.6.2 Sediment cores ................................. 134
6 Wetland Functions .......................................... 135
6.1 Primary production .................................... 136
6.2 Food webs ............................................. 145
6.3 Litter decomposition .................................. 153
6.4 Nutrient cycling ...................................... 159
6.4.1 The carbon cycle ............................... 160
6.4.2 Nitrogen and sulfur cycling .................... 165
6.4.3 Phosphorus cycling ............................. 167
6.5 Summary ............................................... 169
6.6 Practical experiments and observations ................ 170
6.6 Primary production .................................... 170
6.6.2 Invertebrates and litter decomposition ......... 170
6.6.3 Methane production ............................. 171
7 Invasive Species ........................................... 173
7.1 What makes a species invasive? ........................ 175
7.1.1 Landscape sink or disturbance hypothesis ........ 175
7.2 Superior competitor hypothesis ........................ 177
7.2.1 Enemy release .................................. 177
7.2.2 Broader tolerance .............................. 178
7.2.3 Efficient use .................................. 179
7.2.4 Hybrid vigor ................................... 180
7.2.5 Allelopathy .................................... 181
7.2.6 Empty niche .................................... 181
7.2.7 Invasive animal species ........................ 182
7.3 What effect do exotic species have on wetlands? ....... 186
7.4 What should be done to control invasive species? ...... 189
7.5 Summary ............................................... 192
7.6 Practical observations ................................ 193
8 Restoration and Creation ................................... 194
8.1 Definitions ........................................... 194
8.2 Restoration and succession ............................ 199
8.3 Environmental restoration ............................. 201
8.4 Biological restoration ................................ 202
8.4.1 Plant materials ................................ 203
8.4.2 Invasive species ............................... 205
8.4.3 Suitable establishment conditions .............. 206
8.5 Restoration planning .................................. 206
8.5.1 Project goals .................................. 207
8.5.2 Site selection and evaluation .................. 209
8.5.3 Restoration plan ............................... 211
8.5.4 Implementation ................................. 211
8.5.5 Monitoring ..................................... 212
8.5.6 Project evaluation and management .............. 212
8.6 How successful are wetland restorations? .............. 214
8.7 Post-project management ............................... 216
8.8 Summary ............................................... 216
9 Global Climate Change ...................................... 218
9.1 Wetlands and the global carbon budget ................. 219
9.2 Impacts of climate change ............................. 224
9.2.1 Species composition ............................ 225
9.2.2 Migration and extinction ....................... 227
9.3 Indirect effects ...................................... 228
9.3.1 Prairie potholes ............................... 231
9.3.2 Louisiana coastal mashes ....................... 232
9.4 Summary ............................................... 239
9.5 Practical experiments and observations ................ 240
10 The Value and Future of Wetlands ........................... 241
10.1 Functions, services, and values ....................... 243
10.2 Protection and conservation ........................... 249
10.3 Future of wetlands .................................... 253
Glossary ...................................................... 255
Bibliography .................................................. 259
Index ......................................................... 275
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