 | Gavriljuk V.G. High nitrogen steels: structure, properties, manufacture, applications / V.G.Gavriljuk, H.Berns. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer, 1999. - xii, 378 p.: ill. - (Engineering materials). - Ref.: p.334-372. - Ind.: p.373-378.
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1 Structure .................................................... 1
1.1 State of nitrogen atoms in austenite .................... 2
1.1.1 Electronic structure ............................. 3
1.1.1.1 Interatomic electron exchange ........... 7
1.1.1.2 Experimental studies of electronic
structure .............................. 10
1.1.2 Distribution of nitrogen and carbon atoms ....... 14
1.1.2.1 Thermodynamical characteristics of
solid solutions ........................ 14
1.1.2.2 Thermodynamical models of Fe-C(N)
austenite .............................. 20
1.1.2.3 Monte Carlo method for
thermodynamical simulation of solid
solutions .............................. 24
1.1.2.4 C-C interaction and atomic
configurations of carbon in Fe-C
austenite .............................. 26
1.1.2.5 N-N interaction and atomic
configurations of nitrogen in Fe-N
austenite .............................. 29
1.1.2.6 Correlation between atomic
interaction and short range atomic
order .................................. 33
1.1.3 Interaction of nitrogen atoms with
substitutional solutes .......................... 42
1.1.3.1 Estimation of interaction energies
s-i .................................... 43
1.1.3.2 Crystalline symmetry of s-i defects .... 45
1.1.4 Interaction of nitrogen atoms with crystal
lattice imperfections ........................... 49
1.1.4.1 Vacancies .............................. 50
1.1.4.2 Dislocations ........................... 51
1.1.4.3 Grain boundaries ....................... 56
1.1.5 Dislocations and twins in nitrogen austenite .... 58
1.1.5.1 Stacking fault energy .................. 58
1.1.5.2 Dislocation structure and twins ........ 62
1.2 Distribution of nitrogen atoms in martensite ........... 65
1.2.1 Freshly formed Fe-N martensite .................. 66
1.2.2 Early stages of ageing and tempering of
nitrogen martensite ............................. 71
2 Constitution ................................................. 77
2.1 Thermodynamics of multicomponent solutions ............. 77
2.1.1 Solubility of nitrogen in liquid iron and
steel ........................................... 79
2.1.1.1 Effect of alloying elements ............ 80
2.1.1.2 Effect of temperature .................. 82
2.1.1.3 Effect of pressure ..................... 83
2.2 Binary Fe-N diagramme .................................. 84
2.3 Multicomponent phase diagrams .......................... 91
2.3.1 The calculation of phase diagrams ............... 91
2.3.2 The Fe-Cr-Ni-N phase diagram .................... 93
2.3.3 The Fe-Cr-Mn-N phase diagram ................... 100
2.4 Precipitates in austenitic steels ..................... 102
2.4.1 Intermetallic phases ........................... 102
2.4.2 Carbides ....................................... 108
2.4.3 Effect of nitrogen on precipitation ............ 109
2.4.4 Electron concept for stability of austenitic
steels ......................................... 116
2.5 Precipitates in martensitic steels .................... 119
3 Key properties ............................................. 135
3.1 Mechanical properties ................................. 135
3.1.1 Solid solution strengthening ................... 136
3.1.1.1 Athermal strengthening ................ 137
3.1.1.2 Temperature dependence of the yield
strength .............................. 143
3.1.2 Strengthening by grain boundaries .............. 153
3.1.3 Cold work strengthening ........................ 159
3.1.4 Toughness ...................................... 169
3.1.5 Fatigue ........................................ 173
3.1.5.1 Austenitic steels ..................... 173
3.1.5.2 Martensitic and duplex steels ......... 179
3.1.6 Creep .......................................... 180
3.1.7 Wear ........................................... 183
3.2 Chemical properties ................................... 185
3.2.1 General corrosion .............................. 186
3.2.2 Localised corrosion ............................ 188
3.2.2.1 Intercrystalline corrosion ............ 188
3.2.2.2 Pitting ............................... 190
3.2.2.3 Crevice corrosion ..................... 194
3.2.2.4 Stress corrosion cracking ............. 195
3.2.3 Hydrogen embrittlement ......................... 198
4 Manufacturing .............................................. 203
4.1 Uptake of nitrogen .................................... 203
4.1.1 Alloying ....................................... 205
4.1.2 Pressure metallurgy ............................ 206
4.1.3 Powder metallurgy .............................. 213
4.1.4 Solution nitriding ............................. 215
4.2 Hot working ........................................... 218
4.2.1 Process ........................................ 219
4.2.2 Microstructure ................................. 220
4.2.3 Surface effects ................................ 221
4.3 Welding ............................................... 223
4.3.1 Pressure welding ............................... 223
4.3.2 Fusion welding ................................. 224
4.4 Heat treatment ........................................ 226
4.4.1 Holding at high temperature .................... 227
4.4.2 Cooling ........................................ 229
4.5 Machining ............................................. 229
4.5.1 Experimental conditions ........................ 229
4.5.2 Results ........................................ 230
4.6 Products .............................................. 232
5 Steels and applications .................................... 235
5.1 Martensitic steels .................................... 236
5.1.1 Hard stainless steels .......................... 238
5.1.2 Wear resistant stainless steels ................ 242
5.1.3 High-speed steels .............................. 245
5.1.4 Nickel - martensitic stainless steels .......... 248
5.1.5 Stainless quench-and-temper steels ............. 250
5.1.6 Steels for inlet valves ........................ 253
5.1.7 Hot work tool steels ........................... 255
5.1.8 Creep resistant low-alloy steel ................ 257
5.1.9 Creep resistant high alloy steels .............. 259
5.2 Austenitic steels ..................................... 263
5.2.1 Standard stainless steels ...................... 265
5.2.2 Low cost stainless steels ...................... 267
5.2.3 High strength stainless steels ................. 271
5.2.4 Body friendly steels ........................... 275
5.2.5 Steels of high corrosion resistance ............ 276
5.2.6 Cryogenic non-magnetic steels .................. 280
5.2.7 Steels for exhaust valves ...................... 284
5.2.8 Creep resistant steels ......................... 286
5.2.9 High temperature nickel alloys ................. 289
5.3 Steels of mixed microstructure ........................ 291
5.3.1 Stainless ferritic-martensitic dual-phase
steels ......................................... 292
5.3.2 Stainless austenitic-martensitic steels ........ 294
5.3.3 Stainless ferritic-austenitic duplex steels .... 302
5.4 Steels for solution nitriding ......................... 307
5.4.1 Martensitic case ............................... 308
5.4.2 Austenitic case ................................ 313
5.4.3 Application of solution nitriding .............. 316
6 From structure to development ............................... 323
6.1 Structure ............................................. 323
6.2 Properties ............................................ 326
6.3 Technical relevance ................................... 330
References .................................................... 335
Index ......................................................... 373
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