Plastic deformation of minerals and rocks / ed. by Shun-ichiro Karato, Hans-Rudolf Wenk. - Washington: Mineralogical Society of America, 2002. - xii, 420 p.: ill. - (Reviews in mineralogy and geochemistry; vol.51). - Bibliogr. at the end of the art. - ISBN 0-93995063-4; ISSN 1529-6466  Место хранения:   018 | Институт нефтегазовой геологии и геофизики им. А.А.Трофимука | Новосибирск | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

1 New Developments in Deformation Studies: High-Strain Deformation Stephen J. Mackwell, Mervyn S. Paterson INTRODUCTION .................................................... 1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR LARGE STRAINS .......................... 1 Coaxial deformation .......................................... 2 Rotational deformation ....................................... 2 LARGE-STRAIN BEHAVIOR IN ROCKS - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ......... 4 LARGE-STRAIN BEHAVIOR IN ROCKS - CASE STUDIES ................... 6 Monomineralic crustal rocks .................................. 6 Monomineralic mantle rocks ................................... 9 Polyphase systems ........................................... 12 SUMMARY ........................................................ 13 APPENDIX I: Stress Analysis for Diagonally Split-Cylinder Shear Test ........................................ 14 APPENDIX II: The Torsion Test .................................. 15 REFERENCES ..................................................... 17 2 New Developments in Deformation Experiments at High Pressure William B. Durham, Donald J. Weidner, Shun-ichiro Karato, Yanbin Wang INTRODUCTION ................................................... 21 Why is pressure important? .................................. 22 Terminology related to strength and deformation ............. 23 A BRIEF HISTORY OF HIGH-PRESSURE APPARATUS ..................... 24 To 5 GPa: Cylindrical devices ............................... 24 5 GPa and above: Anvil devices .............................. 26 MEASUREMENT METHODS AT HIGH PRESSURE ........................... 27 Stress measurement .......................................... 27 Strain rate measurement ..................................... 32 MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR DEFORMATION AT HIGH PRESSURES ............ 34 Sample assemblies ........................................... 34 Modifications to the sample assembly in a multianvil press ....................................................... 36 Diamond-anvil cell .......................................... 37 Deformation-DIA ............................................. 37 Rotational Drickamer apparatus (RDA) ........................ 40 SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVES ....................................... 44 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................ 45 REFERENCES ..................................................... 46 3 Deformation of Granitic Rocks: Experimental Studies and Natural Examples Jan Tullis INTRODUCTION ................................................... 51 CRYSTAL PLASTICITY PROCESSES ................................... 52 MONOMINERALIC AGGREGATES: QUARTZ ............................... 55 Water ....................................................... 55 Slip systems ................................................ 56 Recrystallization mechanisms and microstructures ............ 56 LPOs ........................................................ 61 Flow laws and piezometers ................................... 64 Comparisons with naturally deformed quartzites .............. 65 MONOMINERALIC AGGREGATES: FELDSPAR ............................. 70 Water ....................................................... 71 Slip systems ................................................ 71 Recrystallization mechanisms and microstructures ............ 71 LPOs ........................................................ 74 Flow laws and piezometers ................................... 74 Comparisons with naturally deformed feldspars ............... 75 POLYPHASE AGGREGATES ........................................... 78 Quartz-feldspar aggregates .................................. 78 Effects of mica ............................................. 79 Comparisons with naturally deformed granitic rocks .......... 81 APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .................................. 85 Information from dislocation creep microstructures .......... 85 Flow laws for crustal rocks ................................. 86 Assessing the strength of the crust ......................... 88 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................ 89 REFERENCES ..................................................... 89 4 Laboratory Constraints on the Rheology of the Upper Mantle Greg Hirth INTRODUCTION ................................................... 97 BACKGROUND ..................................................... 97 Brittle deformation and low-temperature plasticity .......... 97 High-temperature creep ...................................... 99 Brittle-ductile/brittle-plastic transitions ................ 102 INSIGHTS, CAVEATS AND QUESTIONS ABOUT APPLYING LABORATORY DATA TO CONSTRAIN THE RHEOLOGY OF THE OCEANIC MANTLE .......... 103 Strength of the lithosphere and the depth of oceanic earthquakes ................................................ 106 Strength of plate boundaries in the viscous regime ......... 109 High-temperature creep and the viscosity of the mantle ..... 112 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 116 REFERENCES .................................................... 116 5 Partial Melting and Deformation David L. Kohlstedt INTRODUCTION .................................................. 121 MELT DISTRIBUTIONS IN NON-DEFORMING ROCKS ..................... 121 DEFORMATION OF PARTIALLY MOLTEN ROCKS ......................... 127 MELT DISTRIBUTIONS IN DEFORMING ROCKS ......................... 131 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 134 REFERENCES .................................................... 134 6 Dislocations and Slip Systems of Mantle Minerals Patrick Cordier INTRODUCTION .................................................. 137 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS .......................................... 137 EXPERIMENTAL ADVANCES ......................................... 142 High-pressure deformation experiments ...................... 143 Transmission electron microscopy ........................... 144 X-ray diffraction peak broadening .......................... 147 PLASTICITY OF MANTLE PHASES ................................... 147 SiO2 system ................................................ 149 Olivine, wadsleyite, ringwoodite ........................... 153 Garnets .................................................... 167 WHERE DO WE STAND? ............................................ 171 PERSPECTIVES: FROM ATOMIC TO THE GLOBAL SCALE ................. 173 REFERENCES .................................................... 174 7 Instability of Deformation Harry W. Green, II, Chris Marone INTRODUCTION .................................................. 181 SHEARING INSTABILITY .......................................... 182 EXPERIMENTAL HIGH-PRESSURE FAULTING MECHANISMS ................ 185 Dehydration-induced embrittlement .......................... 185 Transformation-induced faulting ............................ 188 "Brittle" versus "plastic" shear failure ................... 192 Thermal runaway due to shear heating ....................... 192 APPLICATION TO EARTHQUAKE MECHANISMS .......................... 193 Earthquake distribution with depth ......................... 193 Mineral reactions available to trigger earthquakes ......... 194 CONCLUSIONS AND SPECULATIONS .................................. 196 REFERENCES .................................................... 197 8 Brittle Failure of Ice Erland M. Schulson INTRODUCTION .................................................. 201 FAILURE UNDER TENSION ......................................... 202 Characteristics ............................................ 202 Failure mechanisms ......................................... 205 Ductile ice ................................................ 206 BRITTLE FAILURE UNDER COMPRESSION ............................. 207 Overview ................................................... 207 Brittle compressive failure under multiaxial loading ....... 210 MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES AND MECHANISMS OF BRITTLE COMPRESSIVE FAILURE ........................................... 222 Longitudinal splits, material collapse and wing cracks ..... 222 Shear faults and comb-cracks ............................... 225 DUCTILE-TO-BRITTLE TRANSITION UNDER COMPRESSION ............... 234 Definition ................................................. 234 Transition models .......................................... 235 ON THE FORMATION OF "LEADS" IN THE ARCTIC SEA ICE COVER ....... 239 ICE AND ROCK .................................................. 245 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 246 REFERENCES .................................................... 246 9 Seismic Wave Attenuation: Energy Dissipation in Viscoelastic Crystalline Solids Reid F. Cooper INTRODUCTION .................................................. 253 LINEAR VISCOELASTICITY: A CHEMICAL KINETICS PERSPECTIVE ....... 253 SPRING AND DASHPOT MODELS OF VISCOELASTICITY .................. 256 ATTENUATION AND THE LINEAR VISCOELASTIC MODELS ................ 259 THE ATTENUATION BAND/HIGH-TEMPERATURE BACKGROUND .............. 262 ISOLATION/CHARACTERIZATION OF A SINGLE PHYSICAL MECHANISM PRODUCING A POWER-LAW ATTENUATION SPECTRUM: THE INTRINSIC TRANSIENT IN DIFFUSIONAL CREEP ................................ 266 DATA EXTRAPOLATION AND APPLICABILITY OF EXPERIMENTS TO GEOPHYSICAL CONDITIONS ..................................... 271 SUBGRAIN ABSORPTION AND THE ATTENUATION BAND .................. 276 IMPACT OF PARTIAL MELTING ..................................... 278 IMPACTS OF DEFECT CHEMISTRY (INCLUDING WATER) AND THE STRUCTURE(S) OF INTERFACES ................................ 283 FINAL COMMENTS ................................................ 286 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 286 REFERENCES .................................................... 287 10 Texture and Anisotropy Hans-Rudolf Wenk INTRODUCTION .................................................. 291 MEASUREMENTS OF TEXTURES ...................................... 291 Overview ................................................... 291 X-ray pole figure goniometer ............................... 292 Synchrotron X-rays ......................................... 292 Neutron diffraction ........................................ 294 Transmission electron microscope (ТЕМ and HVEM) ............ 295 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) ......................... 296 Comparison of methods ...................................... 296 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................. 297 Orientation distributions .................................. 297 From pole figures to ODF ................................... 298 Use of whole diffraction spectra ........................... 299 Statistical considerations of single orientation measurements ............................................... 300 From textures to elastic anisotropy ........................ 301 POLYCRYSTAL PLASTICITY SIMULATIONS ............................ 302 General comments ........................................... 302 Deformation ................................................ 303 Recrystallization .......................................... 306 APPLICATIONS OF POLYCRYSTAL PLASTICITY ........................ 307 Introduction ............................................... 307 Coaxial thinning versus non-coaxial shearing (calcite) ..... 307 Anisotropy in the upper mantle (olivine) ................... 309 Lower mantle ............................................... 312 Core ....................................................... 314 PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES .................................... 316 CONCLUSIONS ................................................... 322 REFERENCES .................................................... 323 11 Modeling Deformation of Polycrystalline Rocks Paul R. Dawson MODELING PRELIMINARIES ........................................ 331 Length scales .............................................. 331 General comments ........................................... 332 Small-scale simulations .................................... 332 Large-scale simulations .................................... 333 SINGLE CRYSTAL CONSTITUTIVE BEHAVIOR .......................... 334 Slip systems ............................................... 334 Crystal kinematics ......................................... 334 Crystal compliance and stiffness ........................... 335 POLYCRYSTAL CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS ............................ 336 Orientational averages ..................................... 336 Linking crystal responses to continuum scale motion ........ 337 SMALL-SCALE HYBRID ELEMENT FORMULATION ........................ 337 LARGE-SCALE VELOCITY-PRESSURE FORMULATION ..................... 339 HALITE TEXTURE EVOLUTION: A SMALL-SCALE APPLICATION ........... 340 Generalities ............................................... 340 Simulation specifics ....................................... 342 Simulation results ......................................... 342 MANTLE CONVECTION - A LARGE-SCALE APPLICATION ................. 343 Generalities ............................................... 343 Simulation specifics ....................................... 345 Simulation results ......................................... 346 SUMMARY ....................................................... 350 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 350 REFERENCES .................................................... 350 12 Seismic Anisotropy and Global Geodynamics Jean-Paul Montagner, Laurent Guillot INTRODUCTION .................................................. 353 CAUSES OF SEISMIC ANISOTROPY FROM MICROSCOPIC TO LARGE SCALE ......................................................... 354 Shape Preferred Orientation (S.P.O.) ....................... 354 Lattice Preferred Orientation (L.P.O.) ..................... 355 EFFECT OF ANISOTROPY ON SEISMIC WAVES ......................... 357 Body waves ................................................. 358 Surface waves .............................................. 359 Comparison between surface wave anisotropy and SKS splitting data ............................................. 363 ANISOTROPY IN THE DIFFERENT LAYERS OF THE EARTH AND THEIR GEODYNAMIC APPLICATIONS ....................................... 365 Reference 1-D Earth models ................................. 366 Evidence of anisotropy in the upper 410 km of the mantle ... 367 Oceanic plates ............................................. 367 Continents ................................................. 370 Anisotropy in the transition zone .......................... 372 Anisotropy in the D''-layer ................................ 372 NUMERICAL MODELING AND BOUNDARY LAYERS ........................ 373 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 377 APPENDIX A Basic Theory of Wave Propagation in Anisotropic Media ............................................. 377 APPENDIX B Tensors and Matrices Manipulations ................ 378 REFERENCES .................................................... 380 13 Theoretical Analysis of Shear Localization in the Lithosphere David Bercovici, Shun-ichiro Karato INTRODUCTION .................................................. 387 THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES ..................................... 388 SHEAR LOCALIZING FEEDBACK MECHANISMS .......................... 389 Thermal feedback with decay-loss healing ................... 390 Simple-damage feedback with decay-loss healing ............. 396 Grain-size feedback ........................................ 399 Thermal and simple-damage feedbacks with diffusive-loss healing .................................................... 405 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS .......................................... 411 Two-dimensional examples ................................... 411 More sophisticated damage theories ......................... 413 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ....................................... 413 REFERENCES .................................................... 418