Introduction ................................................. xiii
1 Introducing insect conservation .............................. 1
1.1 The challenge: the relevance of sampling insects ........ 1
1.2 An historical perspective ............................... 2
1.3 Ethics of insect conservation ........................... 3
1.4 Ethics of collecting insects ............................ 6
1.5 Ecological and evolutionary timescales ................. 10
1.6 The taxonomic challenge ................................ 13
1.7 Summary ................................................ 15
2 Taxonomy and curation of insects ............................ 17
2.1 Introduction: essential planning ....................... 17
2.2 Selection of insect groups for study ................... 19
2.3 Taxonomic knowledge .................................... 21
2.4 Taxonomic resolution ................................... 25
2.5 Morphospecies and parataxonomists ...................... 27
2.5.1 The morphospecies approach ...................... 27
2.5.2 Parataxonomists ................................. 29
2.5.3 Voucher collections ............................. 30
2.6 Bioinformatics ......................................... 31
2.6.1 Virtual voucher collections ..................... 33
2.6.2 Sample tracking ................................. 33
2.6.3 Taxonomy using barcoding ........................ 34
2.7 Specimen treatment ..................................... 35
2.7.1 Sequence of steps for treating insect samples ... 38
2.7.1.1 Preservation ........................... 38
2.7.1.2 Mounting ............................... 46
2.7.1.3 Storage ................................ 53
2.8 Summary ................................................ 57
3 Designing sampling protocols for insect conservation ........ 59
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 59
3.2 Defining the conservation question ..................... 60
3.2.1 Broad objectives in insect conservation ......... 61
3.2.2 Refining the objective .......................... 63
3.2.3 Hypothesis formulation .......................... 64
3.3 Designing a sampling protocol .......................... 65
3.3.1 Sample grain .................................... 66
3.3.2 Sample extent ................................... 67
3.3.3 Sample number ................................... 68
3.3.4 Sample independence ............................. 70
3.3.5 Spatial autocorrelation ......................... 73
3.3.6 Sample placement ................................ 76
3.3.7 Sampling coverage and intensity ................. 79
3.3.8 Controls ........................................ 79
3.4 Pilot studies .......................................... 80
3.5 Coping with the unexpected ............................. 81
3.6 Data management ........................................ 82
3.7 Summary ................................................ 82
4 Collecting and recording insects ............................ 85
4.1 Introduction: What do you really need to collect? ...... 85
4.2 Named and nameless approaches to data portrayal ........ 87
4.3 High-canopy insects .................................... 92
4.4 Low-canopy insects ..................................... 96
4.5 Grass/herbaceous layer ................................. 99
4.6 Sampling flying insects ............................... 101
4.7 Sampling insects on the ground ........................ 116
4.8 Sampling insects in the leaf litter and soil .......... 121
4.9 Sampling aquatic insects .............................. 124
4.10 Sound recording ....................................... 127
4.11 Summary ............................................... 129
5 Measuring environmental variables .......................... 131
5.1 Introduction: selection of variables .................. 131
5.2 Conceptualizing environmental variable data ........... 134
5.3 Choosing the environmental variables .................. 135
5.4 Measuring air and soil environmental variables ........ 146
5.5 Measuring vegetation characteristics .................. 153
5.6 Aquatic environmental variables ....................... 156
5.7 Summary ............................................... 159
6 Estimating population size and condition ................... 161
6.1 Introduction: the relevance of populations ............ 161
6.2 Assessing changes in population levels ................ 163
6.3 Significance of surveys ............................... 166
6.4 Evaluating population structure ....................... 168
6.5 Measuring population size ............................. 171
6.5.7 Some underlying principles ..................... 171
6.5.2 Temporal considerations ........................ 173
6.5.3 Spatial considerations and differences
between sexes .................................. 177
6.5.4 Accuracy of estimates relative to
feasibility .................................... 177
6.5.5 Special considerations for threatened
species ........................................ 178
6.5.6 Direct counts .................................. 179
6.5.7 Transect counts ................................ 183
6.5.7.1 Line transects ........................ 183
6.5.7.2 Point transects ....................... 187
6.5.7.3 Belt transects ........................ 187
6.5.8 Quadrat counts ................................. 188
6.6 Populations and conservation status ................... 189
6.6.7 Conservation status ............................. 189
6.6.2 level of threat ................................. 191
6.7 Population distinctiveness ............................ 202
6.8 Population condition .................................. 204
6.9 Population modelling .................................. 205
6.10 Summary ............................................... 206
7 The population and the landscape ........................... 209
7.1 Introduction: the relevance of landscapes ............. 209
7.2 Effects of landscape structure ........................ 211
7.3 Resources and landscape geometry: the insect's
habitat ............................................... 217
7.4 Insect movements and MRR methods ...................... 218
7.4.1 MRR process .................................... 226
7.4.2 Capture ........................................ 228
7.4.3 Marking ........................................ 229
7.4.4 Release ........................................ 232
7.4.5 Recapture ...................................... 232
7.4.6 Outcomes from MRR studies ...................... 233
7.5 Landscape geometry and insect populations ............. 235
7.6 Dispersal and dispersion (aggregation) ................ 240
7.6.7 Activity patterns .............................. 243
7.6.2 Recording activity and abundance ............... 244
7.7 Summary ............................................... 245
8 Ex-situ conservation: captive rearing and reintroduction
programmes ................................................. 247
8.1 Introduction: conservation objectives ................. 247
8.2 Farming or ranching insects for conservation .......... 252
8.3 Process ............................................... 253
8.3.7 Capture ........................................ 257
8.3.2 Transport ...................................... 258
8.3.3 Maintenance .................................... 259
8.3.4 Breeding ....................................... 260
8.3.5 Release ........................................ 264
8.4 Practical outcomes .................................... 268
8.5 Summary ............................................... 271
9 Biodiversity and assemblage studies ........................ 273
9.1 Introduction: defining biodiversity in space and
time .................................................. 273
9.2 The assemblage matrix ................................. 275
9.3 The relational matrix ................................. 278
9.4 Estimating sampling adequacy .......................... 278
9.4.1 Taxon sampling (accumulation and rarefaction)
curves ......................................... 280
9.5 Species richness ...................................... 282
9.5.7 Comparisons of species richness ................ 282
9.5.2 Estimating species richness .................... 282
9.5.3 Chosing a richness estimator ................... 283
9.6 Species abundance and density ......................... 284
9.7 Species range and distribution ........................ 287
9.7.7 Biodiversity mapping ........................... 288
9.8 Diversity indices ..................................... 292
9.8.7 Species richness, evenness and dominance ....... 292
9.8.2 Beta diversity ................................. 295
9.8.3 Functional diversity ........................... 298
9.8.4 Taxonomic diversity ............................ 300
9.9 Phylogenetic comparative methods ...................... 302
9.10 Summary ............................................... 303
10 Studying insects in the changing environment ............... 305
10.1 Introduction: drivers and methodology ................. 305
10.2 Environmental change in context ....................... 305
10.3 Approaches to studying environmental change ........... 306
10.3.1 Methodological approaches ...................... 306
10.3.2 Modelling ...................................... 307
10.4 Bioindicators ......................................... 310
10.4.1 Bioindication terminology and development ...... 311
10.4.2 Taxa that make good bioindicators .............. 312
10.4.3 Quantifying the indicator value of a species ... 318
10.4.4 Testing the proposed bioindicator and
developing the bioindicator system ............. 321
10.5 Biodiversity assessment ............................... 322
10.6 Biodiversity mapping .................................. 325
10.7 Summary ............................................... 331
11 Key questions for insect conservation in an era of global
change ..................................................... 333
11.1 Forms of environmental change ......................... 333
11.1.1 Habitat loss, fragmentation, and isolation ..... 333
11.1.2 Disturbance, decline in habitat quality and
the loss of critical resources ................. 335
11.1.3 Impact of invasive alien species ............... 336
11.1.4 Climate change ................................. 337
11.1.5 Biotechnology, biological control, and
sustainable harvesting ......................... 346
11.1.5.1 Biotechnology ......................... 346
11.1.5.2 Biological control .................... 351
11.1.5.3 Sustainable harvesting ................ 352
11.1.6 Aquatic and terrestrial systems
contamination .................................. 353
11.2 Consequences of species loss for ecosystem function ... 354
11.2.1 Importance of diversity ........................ 354
11.2.2 Temporal perspectives, adverse synergisms and
discontinuities ................................ 354
11.2.3 Species numbers, rarity and ecosystem
function ....................................... 355
11.2.4 The importance of food web connectance ......... 357
11.2.5 Rare and threatened species as flagships ....... 358
11.3 Lessons learned from diversity value: towards
a synthetic management approach ....................... 359
11.4 Triage and restoration ................................ 364
11.5 Ecological monitoring ................................. 365
11.6 Engaging citizen scientists in insect conservation .... 368
11.7 Summary ............................................... 371
Software ...................................................... 373
References .................................................... 375
Glossary ...................................................... 405
Index ......................................................... 425
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